Difference between revisions of "Fongoli Savanna Chimpanzee Project"

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SITE UNDER PROGRESS
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    rather than several keywords such as "Industrial mining", "Large-scale mining", and "Mining". [[File: Map_SEN_Fongoli.png | 400px | thumb| right | Fongoli Savanna Chimpanzee Project (Senegal) © A.P.E.S. Wiki Team]]
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[[West Africa]] > [[Senegal]] > [[Fongoli Savanna Chimpanzee Project]]
  
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<!-- Where indicated, please use the keywords provided, to assist with data extraction.
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= Summary =  <!-- An overview of the site, with a one sentence overview of each of the following sections. can include a site map -->
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Otherwise, enter information however you want -->
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<div style="float: right">
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{{#display_map: height=200px | width=300px | scrollzoom=off | zoom=5 | layers= OpenStreetMap, OpenTopoMap
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|12.650000, -12.200000~[[Fongoli Savanna Chimpanzee Project]]~Western Chimpanzee
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}}
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</div>
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* Western chimpanzees (''Pan troglodytes verus'') are present in the Fongoli Savanna Chimpanzee Project (FSCP) area.
 +
* As of 2019, 32 individuals occur in the site.
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* The chimpanzee population trend is stable.
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* This site has a total size of 90 km².
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* Key threats to chimpanzees are artisanal mining, resource competition, and habitat loss.
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* This community of chimpanzees has been studied since 2001 and habituated since 2005. They are the only known chimpanzee community to hunt their prey with sharpened sticks. These chimpanzees also evade the heat of their environment by soaking in free-standing water, using caves, and staying active after night fall.
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[[File: SEN_Fongoli_chimp_pool_Erin_Wessling_small.jpg | 400px | thumb| right |Chimpanzees, Fongoli (Senegal) © Erin Wessling]]
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= Site characteristics = <!-- A paragraph summary of physical and geographic aspects of the site, and a table of key information -->
  
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The Fongoli Savanna Research Project (FSCP) was established by Dr. Jill Pruetz following the identification of a strong local chimpanzee population near to the Gambia River and north of Kedougou, in the Kedougou Region of Southeastern Senegal.  The research site is located outside of any formal protected area but the area designated as ‘Zone d'Intérêt Cynégétique Faleme’ (ZIC Faleme), zone within which hunting is strictly regulated. The site overlaps with several villages, and lies in relatively close proximity to the regional capital of Kedougou. The habitat can be described as a savanna-woodland mosaic, located within the vegetation Sudano-Guniean belt (Ba et al. 1997). Fongoli, like the broader region, experiences marked seasonality in climate, with rainfall concentrated to a short wet season and a lengthy dry season. Temperatures during the dry season frequently exceed 40deg C, often exceeding 45C in the months of April and May (Wessling et al. 2018). Other primates living at Fongoli are Guinea baboons (''Papio papio''), green monkeys (''Chlorocebus aethiops''), patas monkeys (''Erythrocebus patas''), and bushbabies (''Galago senegalensis''). All four sympatric primates are consumed by the chimpanzee research community. In addition to these primates, warthog (''Phacochoerus africanus''), banded mongoose (''Mungos mungo''), bushbuck (''Tragelaphus scriptus''), porcupine (''Hystrix cristata''), hyena (''Crocuta crocuta''), leopards (''Panthera pardus''), and honey badgers (''Mellivora capensis'') can be found at the site (Lindshield et al. 2019).
  
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= Summary =  <!-- An overview of the site -->
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'''Table 1. Basic site information for Fongoli Savanna Chimpanzee Project'''
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The Fongoli Savanna Chimpanzee Project (hereafter referred to as the FSCP) was first surveyed in 2000 by Dr. Jill Pruetz, and subsequently a research station was established in 2001. The FSCP habitat is described as sudano-guniean mosaic habitat, including gallery forest, open and closed woodlands, grassland savannas, open plateaus, ecotone, and other habitat types. The climate of the FSCP site is relatively extreme (Wessling et al. 2018b), with an average of 945mm rainfall per year (FSCP longterm database) a nine-month dry season, and an average daily maximum temperature of 37deg C (Wessling et al. 2018a). Possibly due to these environmental extremes, the FSCP site is located in the northwestern limit of the western chimpanzee biogeographical range. Interesting insights from FSCP research has illuminated unique behaviors demonstrated by savanna chimpanzees, including cave use, pool use, and tool assisted hunting (see Behaviors section below).
 
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<br>
 
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= Site characteristics = <!--  -->
 
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The FSCP was founded in 2001 by Dr. Jill Pruetz (Texas State University, USA) following initial surveying conducted by Dr. Pruetz and her collaborators (Pruetz et al. 2002). The Fongoli site was selected for the creation of a long-term research site based on it's high density of chimpanzee nests relative to other locations in the Kedougou Region of Senegal. Habituation efforts were underway from 2001-2005, until in 2005 all male individuals of the community were fully habituated and research effort intensified.
 
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The FSCP (12°40'N, 12°13'W) is located within the Tomboronkoto Arrondissement of the Kedougou Region (southeastern Senegal) and is managed by the Departement des Eaux et Forets des Chasses de Senegal. The project area encompasses an area of approximately 100km² (the size of the Fongoli chimpanzee community home range). A number of villages surround the community, including a number of ethnic groups (Bassari, Bedik, Pulaar, and Malinke; Pruetz 2013).
 
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'''Table 1: Basic site information for the FSCP'''
 
 
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="basic-information"
 
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="basic-information"
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| Area:             <!-- Please include units: km2/ha e.g 200ha    -->
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|Area            <!-- Please include units: km2/ha e.g 200ha    -->
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|100km2
+
|90 km² (Pruetz 2018)
 +
|-
 +
|Coordinates
 +
|12.65, -12.20
 
|-
 
|-
−
| Designation:     <!-- Protected area, Forestry concession, Community reserve   -->
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|Designation      <!-- National Park, Nature Reserve, etc.   -->
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|Long-term research site (non-protected area)
+
|Zone d'Intérêt Cynégétique (zone within which hunting is strictly regulated)
 
|-
 
|-
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|Habitat types:   <!-- IUCN Habitat Classification 3.0 categories present, e.g.  . see link below -->
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|Habitat types    <!-- List IUCN Habitat Classification 3.0 categories present (Without number), see link below -->
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|IUCN category: Moist Savanna
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|Subtropical/Tropical Dry Forest, Dry Savanna, Arable Land
 
|}
 
|}
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[[http://www.unitar.org/hiroshima/sites/unitar.org.hiroshima/files/Annex%201%20-%20IUCN%20Classification%20Schemes.pdf IUCN habitat categories]]
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[http://www.unitar.org/hiroshima/sites/unitar.org.hiroshima/files/Annex%201%20-%20IUCN%20Classification%20Schemes.pdf IUCN habitat categories]   [[Site designations]]
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[[https://www.iucn.org/theme/protected-areas/about/protected-area-categories IUCN Protected area categories]]
 
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<br>
 
  
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= Ape status =  <!-- a text overview of ape status (population sizes, trends etc), followed by a table of specific survey results -->
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= Ape status =  <!-- a text overview of ape status (population sizes, trends etc), followed by a table of specific surveys and results -->
  
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Initial surveying of Fongoli suggested the Fongoli area (identified in Pruetz et al. 2002 as Tomboronkoto) to be of highest chimpanzee for the region, with a chimpanzee encounter rate of 285 chimpanzee signs per 5.8 km walked. To date, no formal surveying has been conducted in Senegal to confirm true abundance estimates relative to other sites. However, as of 2018 32 individuals belong to the research community, although it has varied in size from X to X since 2005. Surrounding communities to the northwest have been estimated to be between 9 and 18 individuals, at a similar estimated density as that observed at Fongoli (Micheletti 2018), although no abundance estimates were provided.  
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The Fongoli chimpanzees have been under research since initial surveying in 2001 (Pruetz et al. 2001), and males have been fully-habituated to researcher presence since 2005. The chimpanzee community ranges in size between 28 and 36 individuals. Density estimates for the site have also been formally conducted in 2013 (0.29 indiv./km²), although they underestimated true chimpanzee densities at the time (0.35 indiv / km²; Wessling et al. in review).
  
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<br>
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'''Table 2. Great ape population estimates in Fongoli Savanna Chimpanzee Project'''
 +
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="population-estimate-table"
 +
! Species
 +
! Year
 +
! Abundance estimate (95% CI)
 +
! Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI)
 +
! Encounter rate (nests/km)
 +
! Area
 +
! Method
 +
! Source
 +
! Comments
 +
! A.P.E.S. database ID
 +
|-
 +
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
 +
|2000
 +
|
 +
|0.09
 +
|49
 +
|Fongoli
 +
|Strip sampling, index sampling
 +
|Pruetz et al.  2002
 +
|*note, not traditional line transect estimation , identified as Tomboronkoto in the article. Transects targeted likely chimpanzee locations. Encounter rate 285 nests/5.8 km
 +
|
 +
|-
 +
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
 +
|2005 - 2016
 +
|32 (28-36)
 +
|
 +
|
 +
|90km²
 +
|Full count
 +
|Pruetz 2018
 +
|Based on data collected on identified individuals
 +
|
 +
|-
 +
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
 +
|2014
 +
|
 +
|0.29
 +
|
 +
|20km²
 +
|Line transects (Distance)
 +
|Wessling et al. in review
 +
|Total survey effort: 20km²
 +
|
 +
|}
  
 
= Threats =    <!-- a text overview of threats, followed by a table of key threats -->
 
= Threats =    <!-- a text overview of threats, followed by a table of key threats -->
  
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Traditionally, resource extraction (e.g., Saba senegalensis fruits, Khaya senegalensis and Pterocarpus erinaceus wood) has been the predominant threat to chimpanzee habitats in Senegal, and these threats have been previously studied at Fongoli (e.g., Clavette X, Mara X). Chimpanzees in the region are not a hunted species but in 2009 a hunter opportunistically captured an infant chimpanzee from the research community after injuring its mother (Pruetz and Kante 2010). The hunter attempted to sell the infant as a pet before it was confiscated and returned to its natal community. Therefore, it appears that chimpanzees at Fongoli and in the region in general are vulnerable to opportunistic hunting.  
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''Saba senegalensis'' is an important food resource for the Fongoli chimpanzees while likewise consistently extracted for sale in local and national markets (Waller and Pruetz 2014). In the last decade Fongoli has become a target of timber extraction, likely due to its proximity to the regional capital and ease of access. Transient pastoral communities pass through Fongoli and cut branches from an assortment of tree species to be used as fodder for their livestock. The Kedougou Region, in which Fongoli is located, has experienced a mining boom since the early 2010s, and temporary to semi-permanent mining camps have been established within the research area, with demonstrated effects on the home range use of the research community (Boyer-Ontl 2017). Poaching is not a consistent threat at the site, however in 2009 a poacher obtained an infant of the research community, which was later returned to the group by researchers (Pruetz and Kante 2010).
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Agriculture
 
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More recently, artisinal gold minign has increased anthropogenic pressure on Fongoli chimpanzees, as several mining sites have opened within the FSCP territory. Along with increased exposure to toxins (e.g., mercury) in the environment, artisinal mining has also been shown to have an impact on movement patterns of the chimpanzees.  
 
  
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<br><div class="threats-list">
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'''Table 3. Threats to great apes in Fongoli Savanna Chimpanzee Project'''
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* Threats present: poaching, agriculture, logging, artisinal and industral <!-- use keywords from list -->
 
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</div>
 
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[[Threats list]]
 
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<br>
 
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'''Table 2: Threats to great apes in Fongoli '''
 
 
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="threats-table"
 
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="threats-table"
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!align="left"|Major Threats
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!align="left"|Category  <!-- Do not change threat categories -->
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!Threat level        <!-- For threat level, please use: low, high -->
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!Specific threats    <!-- For specific threats, please use list of comma separated keywords from the list linked below -->
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!Description        <!-- You can add more information here -->
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!Threat level        <!-- For threat level, please use keywords: unknown, low, high -->
 +
!Quantified severity <!-- e.g., encounter rate, number of miners etc. (with reference)-->
 +
!Description        <!-- You can add descriptive information here -->
 +
!Year of threat      <!-- if ongoing or unknown add year of reference in brackets-->
 
|-
 
|-
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|Poaching
+
|1. Residential & commercial development
−
|low, but present
+
|
−
|chimpanzees are not targeted but have been confiscated opportunistically
+
|Absent
 +
|
 +
|
 +
|
 
|-
 
|-
−
|Disease
+
|2. Agriculture & aquaculture
−
|low
+
|2.1 Annual & perennial non-timber crops
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|Fongoli chimpanzees appear to have low parasite loads (from Howells et al. X)
+
|Medium
 +
|
 +
|Bogart and Pruetz 2012, Pruetz 2006, Pruetz and Bertolani 2009
 +
|Ongoing (2009)
 
|-
 
|-
−
|Agriculture
+
|
−
|high
+
|2.3 Livestock farming & ranching
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|the Fongoli community home range is interspersed with agricultural fields, the local population is predominately subsistence agriculturalists
+
|Medium
 +
|
 +
|Nomadic grazing (Wessling pers. obs.)
 +
|Ongoing (2019)
 
|-
 
|-
−
|Logging
+
|3. Energy production & mining
−
|low
+
|3.2 Mining & quarrying
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|Certain key species are targeted for logging, but extraction level has been minimal
+
|High
 +
|
 +
|Artisanal Gold Mining: Boyer-Ontl 2017; Lindshield et al. 2019
 +
|Ongoing (2019)
 +
|-
 +
|4. Transportation & service corridors
 +
|
 +
|Absent
 +
|
 +
|
 +
|
 +
|-
 +
|5. Biological resource use
 +
|5.1 Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals
 +
|Low
 +
|
 +
|Pruetz and Kante 2010
 +
|Ongoing (2010)
 +
|-
 +
|
 +
|5.2 Gathering terrestrial plants
 +
|Medium
 +
|
 +
|Saba Extraction: Waller and Pruetz 2016
 +
|Ongoing (2016)
 +
|-
 +
|
 +
|5.3 Logging & wood harvesting
 +
|Present
 +
|
 +
|Wood harvesting: Boyer-Ontl 2017
 +
|Ongoing (2017)
 +
|-
 +
|6. Human intrusions & disturbance
 +
|
 +
|Absent
 +
|
 +
|
 +
|
 +
|-
 +
|7. Natural system modifications
 +
|7.1 Fire & fire suppression
 +
|High
 +
|
 +
|Pruetz and Herzog 2017; Pruetz and LaDuke 2010
 +
|Ongoing (2017)
 +
|-
 +
|8. Invasive & other problematic species, genes, diseases
 +
|
 +
|Absent
 +
|
 +
|
 +
|
 +
|-
 +
|9. Pollution
 +
|9.2 Industrial & military effluents
 +
|Medium
 +
|
 +
|Seepage from mining, known mercury pollution in the immediate region (Gerson et al. 2018)
 +
|Ongoing (2018)
 +
|-
 +
|10. Geological Events
 +
|
 +
|Absent
 +
|
 +
|
 +
|
 +
|-
 +
|11. Climate change & severe weather
 +
|11.3 Temperature extremes
 +
|High
 +
|
 +
|Naturally high temperature extremes: Pruetz and Bertolani 2009; Wessling et al. 2018
 +
|Ongoing (2018)
 +
|-
 +
|12. Other options
 +
|
 +
|Absent
 +
|
 +
|
 +
|
 
|-
 
|-
−
|Mining
 
−
|high
 
−
|artisinal gold mining is a severe and growing threat to all chimpanzees in the Region
 
 
|}
 
|}
−
<br>
+
[https://www.iucnredlist.org/resources/threat-classification-scheme IUCN Threats list]
  
 
= Conservation activities =      <!-- a text overview of conservation activities, followed by a table of key activities -->
 
= Conservation activities =      <!-- a text overview of conservation activities, followed by a table of key activities -->
  
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Neighbor Ape was founded by Dr. Pruetz as a means of supporting local communities surrounding the FSCP (link). The charity has undertaken a varied number of approaches towards supporting these communities, including funding individual and village-wide health projects, school fees and supplies, and other education-related endeavors such as founding a housing project to support students from local villages (OBRAR: link). Other conservation activities include....
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Since the inception of the research project, a permanent research presence has existed at the Fongoli site since 2001. Local personnel are employed with the project, and sensibilization programmes began at Fongoli and in the region to educate local populations about chimpanzees. Researchers take care to prevent communicable diseases to the apes, including strict minimum distance guidelines, wearing face masks, and requirement of vaccinations and good health to access the site.  [https://www.globalgiving.org/donate/10235/neighbor-ape/  Neighbor Ape], a non-profit for the conservation of chimpanzees in Senegal, was established by Fongoli Director Dr. Jill Pruetz, and conducts frequent assistance programs to local communities of the immediate and broader Fongoli region. Details on smaller projects are listed [https://www.globalgiving.org/donate/10235/neighbor-ape/ here].
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<br><br>
 
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<div class="conservation-activities-list">
 
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* Conservation activities present: e.g. radio campaign, aquaculture project.... <!-- use keywords from list -->
 
−
</div>
 
−
[[Conservation activities list]]
 
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'''Table 3: Conservation activities in !!! insert site name !!! '''
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'''Table 4. Conservation activities in Fongoli Savanna Chimpanzee Project'''
 
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="conservation-actions-table"
 
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="conservation-actions-table"
−
!align="left"|Conservation actions
+
!align="left"|Category  <!-- Do not change threat categories -->
−
!Presence           
+
!Specific activity    <!-- For specific threats, please use list of comma separated keywords from the list linked below -->
−
!Description
+
!Description         <!-- You can add descriptive information here -->
 +
!Year of activity        <!-- if ongoing or unknown add year of reference in brackets -->
 +
|-
 +
|1. Residential & commercial development
 +
|Absent
 +
|
 +
|
 +
|-
 +
|2. Agriculture & aquaculture
 +
|Absent
 +
|
 +
|
 +
|-
 +
|3. Energy production & mining
 +
|Absent
 +
|
 +
|
 +
|-
 +
|4. Transportation & service corridors
 +
|Absent
 +
|
 +
|
 +
|-
 +
|5. Biological resource use
 +
|Absent
 +
|
 +
|
 +
|-
 +
|6. Human intrusions & disturbance
 +
|Absent
 +
|
 +
|
 +
|-
 +
|7. Natural system modifications
 +
|Absent
 +
|
 +
|
 +
|-
 +
|8. Invasive & other problematic species, genes, diseases
 +
|8.7. Wear face-masks to avoid transmission of viral and bacterial diseases to primates
 +
|Researchers must wear face masks while in the presence of chimpanzees (Pruetz and Kante 2010)
 +
|Since 2012
 +
|-
 +
|
 +
|8.8. Keep safety distance to habituated animals
 +
|Minimum 10m distance between researchers and chimpanzees
 +
|Since 2001
 +
|-
 +
|
 +
|8.12. Ensure that researchers/tourists are up-to-date with vaccinations and healthy
 +
|Integral to research program
 +
|Since 2001
 
|-
 
|-
−
|Law Enforcement
+
|
−
|no
+
|8.16. Treat sick/injured animals
−
|non-protected area, although hunting restrictions by the Dept. des Eaux et Forets are in place
+
|A confiscated 9-months old female was treated for its injured eye before being released back to its natal group (Pruetz and Kante 2010)
 +
|2010
 +
|-
 +
|9. Pollution
 +
|9.2. Remove human food waste that may potentially serve as food sources for primates to avoid disease transmission and conflict with humans
 +
|Researchers do not leave food waste during research day
 +
|Since 2001
 +
|-
 +
|10. Education & Awareness
 +
|10.2. Involve local community in primate research and conservation management
 +
|People hired for research and conservation with the FSCP
 +
|Ongoing (2019)
 +
|-
 +
|
 +
|10.5. Implement multimedia campaigns using theatre, film, print media, discussions
 +
|Sensibilisation programme for several locations throughout Senegal, incl. Fongoli
 +
|2010 (USAID funding)
 +
|-
 +
|11. Habitat Protection
 +
|Absent
 +
|
 +
|
 
|-
 
|-
−
|Long-term Research
+
|12. Species Management
−
|yes
+
|12.1. Habituate primates to human presence to reduce stress from tourists/researchers etc.
−
|since 2005
+
|Chimpanzees were habituated for research
 +
|Completed 2001-2005
 
|-
 
|-
−
|Permanent Monitoring Program
 
−
|no
 
 
|
 
|
 +
|12.16. Reintroduce primates as single/multiple individuals
 +
|A confiscated 9-months old female was released close to its natal group and the group retrieved it immediately (Pruetz and Kante 2010)
 +
|2010
 
|-
 
|-
−
|Education
 
−
|no
 
 
|
 
|
 +
|12.18. Reintroduce primates into habitat where the species is present
 +
|A confiscated 9-months old female was released close to its natal group and the group retrieved it immediately (Pruetz and Kante 2010)
 +
|2010
 
|-
 
|-
−
|Public Awareness Campaign
+
|13. Livelihood; Economic & Other Incentives
−
|yes
+
|13.1. Provide monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g. REDD, employment)
−
|intermittent programs through FSCP-associated organization Neighbor Ape
+
|People hired for research and conservation with the FSCP
 +
|Since 2001
 
|-
 
|-
−
|Ecotourism
 
−
|no
 
 
|
 
|
 +
|13.3. Run research project and ensure permanent human presence at site
 +
|Fongoli Savanna Research Project
 +
|Since 2001
 +
|-
 
|}
 
|}
 +
[[Conservation activities list (Junker et al. 2017)]]
  
−
<br>
+
= Challenges = <!-- Overview of impediments to ape conservation -->
  
−
= Impediments = <!-- Overview of impediments to ape conservation -->
+
'''Table 5. Challenges reported for Fongoli Savanna Chimpanzee Project'''
−
 
+
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="challenges-table"
−
Artisinal gold mining is a challenging threat to overcome to chimpanzee conservation at FSCP, as it is viewed by the local population as a significant means of income. Likewise, agricultural production within and surrounding the FSCP is a traditional means of sustaining the local population (commonly subsistence farmers), and therefore is unlikely to be eradicated.
+
!align="left"|Challenge  <!-- Do not change categories -->
−
 
+
!Source  <!-- source for impediment mentioned -->
−
<br><br>
+
|-
−
 
+
|Not reported
−
<div class="impediments-list">
+
|
−
* Impediments present: e.g. poverty, lack of alternative livelihoods.... <!-- use keywords from list -->
+
|}
−
[[Impediments list]]
 
−
</div><br>
 
  
 
= Research activities = <!-- Overview of research activities -->
 
= Research activities = <!-- Overview of research activities -->
  
−
The FSCP site was first surveyed in 199 as part of larger-scale surveying in the region (Pruetz et al., 2002). Since then, the FSCP community has been under continuous research since 2001, with all males of the community habituated to researcher presence since 2005. Research at Fongoli has been predominately behavioral (see below), although ecological (Bogart and Pruetz 2011), endocrinological (Wessling et al. 2018a,b), and isotopic research (Sponheimer et al. 2006) have also been conducted there. Research activities have also recently extended to neighboring chimpanzee communities (e.g. X).  
+
The Fongoli chimpanzees have been under study since 2001 and were fully habituated by 2005. A permanent research presence has existed at the site since the start of the project. A wide range of topics have been studied at the Fongoli site, including aspects related to behavior, culture, feeding ecology, physiology, isotopes, parasite loading, enthoprimatology, and sociality, among many others.  
  
−
<br>
+
===Documented behaviours===  <!-- List of any behaviours observed at the site, including citations -->
−
* Surveys
 
  
−
'''Table 4: Great ape population estimates at the FSCP'''
+
'''Table 6. Great ape behaviors reported for Fongoli Savanna Chimpanzee Project'''
−
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="population-estimate-table"
+
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="behaviors-table"
−
! Species
+
!align="left"|Behavior  <!-- Do not change categories -->
−
! Year
+
!Source  <!-- source for behavior -->
−
! Number of Individuals (or present/absent)
+
|-
−
! 95% C.I.s
+
|Ant dipping
−
! Source
+
|Pruetz and Bertolani 2009
−
! Comments
+
|-
 +
|Ant eating
 +
|Pruetz and Bertolani 2009
 +
|-
 +
|Cave use
 +
|Pruetz 2007
 +
|-
 +
|Lethal intragroup aggression
 +
|Pruetz et al. 2017
 +
|-
 +
|Making ground nests
 +
|Pruetz et al. 2008
 +
|-
 +
|Nighttime activity
 +
|Pruetz 2018
 +
|-
 +
|Pool use
 +
|Pruetz and Bertolani 2009
 
|-
 
|-
−
|Western chimpanzee
+
|Termite fishing
−
|2000
+
|McGrew et al. 2005; Bogart and Pruetz 2008, 2012
−
|49.1 signs / km (present)
 
−
|NA
 
−
|Pruetz et al. 2002
 
−
|Recce survey
 
 
|-
 
|-
−
|Western chimpanzee
+
|Tool assisted hunting
−
|2018
+
|Pruetz and Bertolani 2007; Pruetz et al. 2015
−
|0.32 / km2
 
−
|NA
 
−
|Known chimpanzee density; FSCP long-term data
 
−
|Research community
 
 
|}
 
|}
−
<br>
 
−
 
−
<!-- Any documented cultural behaviours -->
 
−
<div class="behaviours-list">
 
−
* Documented (exceptional) behaviours:
 
−
** Tool-assisted hunting (Pruetz and Bertolani 2007, Pruetz et al. 2015)
 
−
** Cave use (Pruetz 2002, Pruetz 2007)
 
−
** Coprophagy (Pruetz and Bertolani 2012)
 
−
** Pool use (Pruetz and Bertolani 2009)
 
−
 
−
</div>
 
−
See [[Behaviour list]]
 
−
<br>
 
−
<br>
 
−
* Relevant datasets: [http://apesportal.eva.mpg.de/database/archiveMap A.P.E.S Portal]
 
−
N/A
 
  
−
<br>
 
  
 
= References =
 
= References =
 +
Bogart, S. L., & Pruetz, J. D. (2008). Ecological context of savanna chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes verus) termite fishing at Fongoli, Senegal. American Journal of Primatology: Official Journal of the American Society of Primatologists, 70(6), 605-612. v
 +
Bogart, S. L., & Pruetz, J. D. (2011). Insectivory of savanna chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) at Fongoli, Senegal. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 145(1), 11-20.<br>
 +
Lindshield, S., Bogart, S. L., Gueye, M., Ndiaye, P. I., & Pruetz, J. D. (2019). Informing Protection Efforts for Critically Endangered Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) and Sympatric Mammals amidst Rapid Growth of Extractive Industries in Senegal. Folia Primatologica, 90(2), 124-136. <br>
 +
McGrew, W. C., Pruetz, J. D., & Fulton, S. J. (2005). Chimpanzees use tools to harvest social insects at Fongoli, Senegal. Folia Primatologica, 76(4), 222-226. <br>
 +
Ontl, K. M. B. (2017). Chimpanzees in the Island Of Gold: Impacts of artisanal small-scale gold mining on chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) in Fongoli, Senegal.<br>
 +
Pruetz, J. D. (2006). Feeding ecology of savanna chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) at Fongoli, Senegal. Feeding ecology in apes and other primates, 326-364.<br>
 +
Pruetz, J. D. (2007). Evidence of cave use by savanna chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) at Fongoli, Senegal: implications for thermoregulatory behavior. Primates, 48(4), 316-319. <br>
 +
Pruetz, J. D. (2018). Nocturnal behavior by a diurnal ape, the West African chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes verus), in a savanna environment at Fongoli, Senegal. American journal of physical anthropology, 166(3), 541-548. <br>
 +
Pruetz, J. D., & Bertolani, P. (2007). Savanna chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes verus, hunt with tools. Current biology, 17(5), 412-417. <br>
 +
Pruetz, J. D., & Bertolani, P. (2009). Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes verus) behavioral responses to stresses associated with living in a savanna-mosaic environment: implications for hominin adaptations to open habitats. PaleoAnthropology, 252. <br>
 +
Pruetz, J. D., & Herzog, N. M. (2017). Savanna chimpanzees at Fongoli, Senegal, navigate a fire landscape. Current Anthropology, 58(S16), S337-S350. <br>
 +
Pruetz, J. D., & Kante, D. (2010). Successful return of a wild infant chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes verus) to its natal group after capture by poachers. African Primates, 7(1), 35.<br>
 +
Pruetz, J. D., & LaDuke, T. C. (2010). Brief communication: Reaction to fire by savanna chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) at Fongoli, Senegal: Conceptualization of" fire behavior" and the case for a chimpanzee model. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 141(4), 646-650.<br>
 +
Pruetz, J. D., Bertolani, P., Ontl, K. B., Lindshield, S., Shelley, M., & Wessling, E. G. (2015). New evidence on the tool-assisted hunting exhibited by chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) in a savannah habitat at Fongoli, Sénégal. Royal Society Open Science, 2(4), 140507. <br>
 +
Pruetz, J. D., Fulton, S. J., Marchant, L. F., McGrew, W. C., Schiel, M., & Waller, M. (2008). Arboreal nesting as anti-predator adaptation by savanna chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) in southeastern Senegal. American Journal of Primatology: Official Journal of the American Society of Primatologists, 70(4), 393-401. <br>
 +
Pruetz, J. D., Marchant, L. F., Arno, J., & McGrew, W. C. (2002). Survey of savanna chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) in southeastern Senegal. American Journal of Primatology: Official Journal of the American Society of Primatologists, 58(1), 35-43. <br>
 +
Waller, M. T., & Pruetz, J. (2016). Competition between chimpanzees and humans: the effects of harvesting non-timber forest products. In Ethnoprimatology (pp. 157-177). Springer, Cham. <br>
 +
Wessling, E. G., Kühl, H. S., Mundry, R., Deschner, T., & Pruetz, J. D. (2018). The costs of living at the edge: Seasonal stress in wild savanna-dwelling chimpanzees. Journal of human evolution, 121, 1-11.<br>
 +
Wessling, E.G., Eshuis, H., Llana, M., Pacheco, L., Pruetz, J.D., & H.S. Kühl. (In Review). Ecological and climatic gradients correlate with decreasing savanna chimpanzee (Pan trodglodytes verus) densities at the range limit. Int J Primatol.<br>
  
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* Clavette et al X
 
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* Boyer Ontl 2017
 
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* Pruetz and Kante 2010
 
  
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'''Page completed by:''' A.P.E.S. Wiki Team '''Date:''' 20/11/2019  <!-- If you don't want to add your name, you can add "A.P.E.S. Wiki team" -->
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* Bertolani, P., & Pruetz, J. D. (2011). Seed Reingestion in Savannah Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) at Fongoli, Senegal. International Journal of Primatology, 32(5), 1123-1132. doi:10.1007/s10764-011-9528-5
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<br><br>
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* Bogart, S. L., & Pruetz, J. D. (2008). Ecological context of savanna chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes verus) termite fishing at Fongoli, Senegal. Am J Primatol, 70(6), 605-612.
 
−
* Bogart, S. L., & Pruetz, J. D. (2011). Insectivory of savanna chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) at Fongoli, Senegal. American journal of physical anthropology, 145(1), 11-20. doi:10.1002/ajpa.21452
 
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* Howells, M. E., Pruetz, J., & Gillespie, T. R. (2011). Patterns of gastro-intestinal parasites and commensals as an index of population and ecosystem health: the case of sympatric western chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) and guinea baboons (Papio hamadryas papio) at Fongoli, Senegal. Am J Primatol, 73(2), 173-179. doi:10.1002/ajp.20884
 
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* Micheletti, K. (2018) Influence of human disturbance on Western Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes verus) nesting behavior in a savanna mosaic habitat, southeastern Senegal. Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA. Masters Thesis.
 
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* Pruetz, J. (2001). Note: Use of Caves by Savanna Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) in the Tomboronkoto Region of Southeastern Senegal. 8(2).
 
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* Pruetz, J., & Bertolani, P. (2007). Savanna chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes verus, hunt with tools. Current Biology, 17, 1-6.
 
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* Pruetz, J., & Bertolani, P. (2009). Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes verus) behavioral responses to stresses associated with living in a savannah-mosaic environment: Implications for hominin adaptations to open habitats. PaleoAnthropology, 2009, 252-262. doi:10.4207/pa.2009.art33
 
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* Pruetz, J. D. (2007). Evidence of cave use by savanna chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) at Fongoli, Senegal: implications for thermoregulatory behavior. Primates, 48(4), 316-319. doi:10.1007/s10329-007-0038-1
 
−
* Pruetz, J. D. (2013). Studying Apes in a Human Landscape. In K. B. Strier (Ed.), Primate Ethnographies: Pearson Publishers.
 
−
* Pruetz, J. D. (2018). Nocturnal behavior by a diurnal ape, the West African chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes verus), in a savanna environment at Fongoli, Senegal. American journal of physical anthropology.
 
−
* Pruetz, J. D., Bertolani, P., Boyer Ontl, K., Lindshield, S., Shelley, M., & Wessling, E. (2015). New evidence on the tool-assisted hunting exhibited by chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) in a savannah habitat at Fongoli, Sénégal. Royal Society Open Science, 2(4), 140507.
 
−
* Pruetz, J. D., Marchant, L. F., Arno, J., & McGrew, W. C. (2002). Survey of savanna chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) in Southeastern Senegal. Am J Primatol, 58(1), 35-43. doi:10.1002/ajp.10035
 
−
* Pruetz, J. D., Ontl, K. B., Cleaveland, E., Lindshield, S., Marshack, J., & Wessling, E. G. (2017). Intragroup lethal aggression in West African chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus): Inferred killing of a former alpha male at Fongoli, Senegal. International Journal of Primatology, 38(1), 31-57.
 
−
* Pruetz, J. D., Ontl, K. B., Cleaveland, E., Lindshield, S., Marshack, J., & Wessling, E. G. (2017). Intragroup lethal aggression in West African chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus): Inferred killing of a former alpha male at Fongoli, Senegal. International Journal of Primatology, 38(1), 31-57.
 
−
* Skinner, M. F., & Pruetz, J. D. (2012). Reconstruction of periodicity of repetitive linear enamel hypoplasia from perikymata counts on imbricational enamel among dry‐adapted chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) from Fongoli, Senegal. American journal of physical anthropology, 149(3), 468-482.
 
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* Sponheimer, M., Loudon, J. E., Codron, D., Howells, M. E., Pruetz, J. D., Codron, J., . . . Lee-Thorp, J. A. (2006). Do "savanna" chimpanzees consume C4 resources? Journal of Human Evolution, 51(2), 128-133. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2006.02.002
 
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* Wessling, E. G., Deschner, T., Mundry, R., Pruetz, J. D., Wittig, R. M., & Kuehl, H. S. (2018). Seasonal Variation in Physiology Challenges the Notion of Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) as a Forest-Adapted Species. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution, 6, 60.* Wessling, E. G., Kühl, H. S., Mundry, R., Deschner, T., & Pruetz, J. D. (2018). The costs of living at the edge: Seasonal stress in wild savanna-dwelling chimpanzees. Journal of Human Evolution.
 

Latest revision as of 08:37, 3 April 2024

West Africa > Senegal > Fongoli Savanna Chimpanzee Project

Summary

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  • Western chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) are present in the Fongoli Savanna Chimpanzee Project (FSCP) area.
  • As of 2019, 32 individuals occur in the site.
  • The chimpanzee population trend is stable.
  • This site has a total size of 90 km².
  • Key threats to chimpanzees are artisanal mining, resource competition, and habitat loss.
  • This community of chimpanzees has been studied since 2001 and habituated since 2005. They are the only known chimpanzee community to hunt their prey with sharpened sticks. These chimpanzees also evade the heat of their environment by soaking in free-standing water, using caves, and staying active after night fall.
Chimpanzees, Fongoli (Senegal) © Erin Wessling

Site characteristics

The Fongoli Savanna Research Project (FSCP) was established by Dr. Jill Pruetz following the identification of a strong local chimpanzee population near to the Gambia River and north of Kedougou, in the Kedougou Region of Southeastern Senegal. The research site is located outside of any formal protected area but the area designated as ‘Zone d'Intérêt Cynégétique Faleme’ (ZIC Faleme), zone within which hunting is strictly regulated. The site overlaps with several villages, and lies in relatively close proximity to the regional capital of Kedougou. The habitat can be described as a savanna-woodland mosaic, located within the vegetation Sudano-Guniean belt (Ba et al. 1997). Fongoli, like the broader region, experiences marked seasonality in climate, with rainfall concentrated to a short wet season and a lengthy dry season. Temperatures during the dry season frequently exceed 40deg C, often exceeding 45C in the months of April and May (Wessling et al. 2018). Other primates living at Fongoli are Guinea baboons (Papio papio), green monkeys (Chlorocebus aethiops), patas monkeys (Erythrocebus patas), and bushbabies (Galago senegalensis). All four sympatric primates are consumed by the chimpanzee research community. In addition to these primates, warthog (Phacochoerus africanus), banded mongoose (Mungos mungo), bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus), porcupine (Hystrix cristata), hyena (Crocuta crocuta), leopards (Panthera pardus), and honey badgers (Mellivora capensis) can be found at the site (Lindshield et al. 2019).

Table 1. Basic site information for Fongoli Savanna Chimpanzee Project

Area 90 km² (Pruetz 2018)
Coordinates 12.65, -12.20
Designation Zone d'Intérêt Cynégétique (zone within which hunting is strictly regulated)
Habitat types Subtropical/Tropical Dry Forest, Dry Savanna, Arable Land

IUCN habitat categories Site designations

Ape status

The Fongoli chimpanzees have been under research since initial surveying in 2001 (Pruetz et al. 2001), and males have been fully-habituated to researcher presence since 2005. The chimpanzee community ranges in size between 28 and 36 individuals. Density estimates for the site have also been formally conducted in 2013 (0.29 indiv./km²), although they underestimated true chimpanzee densities at the time (0.35 indiv / km²; Wessling et al. in review).

Table 2. Great ape population estimates in Fongoli Savanna Chimpanzee Project

Species Year Abundance estimate (95% CI) Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI) Encounter rate (nests/km) Area Method Source Comments A.P.E.S. database ID
Pan troglodytes verus 2000 0.09 49 Fongoli Strip sampling, index sampling Pruetz et al. 2002 *note, not traditional line transect estimation , identified as Tomboronkoto in the article. Transects targeted likely chimpanzee locations. Encounter rate 285 nests/5.8 km
Pan troglodytes verus 2005 - 2016 32 (28-36) 90km² Full count Pruetz 2018 Based on data collected on identified individuals
Pan troglodytes verus 2014 0.29 20km² Line transects (Distance) Wessling et al. in review Total survey effort: 20km²

Threats

Saba senegalensis is an important food resource for the Fongoli chimpanzees while likewise consistently extracted for sale in local and national markets (Waller and Pruetz 2014). In the last decade Fongoli has become a target of timber extraction, likely due to its proximity to the regional capital and ease of access. Transient pastoral communities pass through Fongoli and cut branches from an assortment of tree species to be used as fodder for their livestock. The Kedougou Region, in which Fongoli is located, has experienced a mining boom since the early 2010s, and temporary to semi-permanent mining camps have been established within the research area, with demonstrated effects on the home range use of the research community (Boyer-Ontl 2017). Poaching is not a consistent threat at the site, however in 2009 a poacher obtained an infant of the research community, which was later returned to the group by researchers (Pruetz and Kante 2010).

Table 3. Threats to great apes in Fongoli Savanna Chimpanzee Project

Category Specific threats Threat level Quantified severity Description Year of threat
1. Residential & commercial development Absent
2. Agriculture & aquaculture 2.1 Annual & perennial non-timber crops Medium Bogart and Pruetz 2012, Pruetz 2006, Pruetz and Bertolani 2009 Ongoing (2009)
2.3 Livestock farming & ranching Medium Nomadic grazing (Wessling pers. obs.) Ongoing (2019)
3. Energy production & mining 3.2 Mining & quarrying High Artisanal Gold Mining: Boyer-Ontl 2017; Lindshield et al. 2019 Ongoing (2019)
4. Transportation & service corridors Absent
5. Biological resource use 5.1 Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals Low Pruetz and Kante 2010 Ongoing (2010)
5.2 Gathering terrestrial plants Medium Saba Extraction: Waller and Pruetz 2016 Ongoing (2016)
5.3 Logging & wood harvesting Present Wood harvesting: Boyer-Ontl 2017 Ongoing (2017)
6. Human intrusions & disturbance Absent
7. Natural system modifications 7.1 Fire & fire suppression High Pruetz and Herzog 2017; Pruetz and LaDuke 2010 Ongoing (2017)
8. Invasive & other problematic species, genes, diseases Absent
9. Pollution 9.2 Industrial & military effluents Medium Seepage from mining, known mercury pollution in the immediate region (Gerson et al. 2018) Ongoing (2018)
10. Geological Events Absent
11. Climate change & severe weather 11.3 Temperature extremes High Naturally high temperature extremes: Pruetz and Bertolani 2009; Wessling et al. 2018 Ongoing (2018)
12. Other options Absent

IUCN Threats list

Conservation activities

Since the inception of the research project, a permanent research presence has existed at the Fongoli site since 2001. Local personnel are employed with the project, and sensibilization programmes began at Fongoli and in the region to educate local populations about chimpanzees. Researchers take care to prevent communicable diseases to the apes, including strict minimum distance guidelines, wearing face masks, and requirement of vaccinations and good health to access the site. Neighbor Ape, a non-profit for the conservation of chimpanzees in Senegal, was established by Fongoli Director Dr. Jill Pruetz, and conducts frequent assistance programs to local communities of the immediate and broader Fongoli region. Details on smaller projects are listed here.

Table 4. Conservation activities in Fongoli Savanna Chimpanzee Project

Category Specific activity Description Year of activity
1. Residential & commercial development Absent
2. Agriculture & aquaculture Absent
3. Energy production & mining Absent
4. Transportation & service corridors Absent
5. Biological resource use Absent
6. Human intrusions & disturbance Absent
7. Natural system modifications Absent
8. Invasive & other problematic species, genes, diseases 8.7. Wear face-masks to avoid transmission of viral and bacterial diseases to primates Researchers must wear face masks while in the presence of chimpanzees (Pruetz and Kante 2010) Since 2012
8.8. Keep safety distance to habituated animals Minimum 10m distance between researchers and chimpanzees Since 2001
8.12. Ensure that researchers/tourists are up-to-date with vaccinations and healthy Integral to research program Since 2001
8.16. Treat sick/injured animals A confiscated 9-months old female was treated for its injured eye before being released back to its natal group (Pruetz and Kante 2010) 2010
9. Pollution 9.2. Remove human food waste that may potentially serve as food sources for primates to avoid disease transmission and conflict with humans Researchers do not leave food waste during research day Since 2001
10. Education & Awareness 10.2. Involve local community in primate research and conservation management People hired for research and conservation with the FSCP Ongoing (2019)
10.5. Implement multimedia campaigns using theatre, film, print media, discussions Sensibilisation programme for several locations throughout Senegal, incl. Fongoli 2010 (USAID funding)
11. Habitat Protection Absent
12. Species Management 12.1. Habituate primates to human presence to reduce stress from tourists/researchers etc. Chimpanzees were habituated for research Completed 2001-2005
12.16. Reintroduce primates as single/multiple individuals A confiscated 9-months old female was released close to its natal group and the group retrieved it immediately (Pruetz and Kante 2010) 2010
12.18. Reintroduce primates into habitat where the species is present A confiscated 9-months old female was released close to its natal group and the group retrieved it immediately (Pruetz and Kante 2010) 2010
13. Livelihood; Economic & Other Incentives 13.1. Provide monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g. REDD, employment) People hired for research and conservation with the FSCP Since 2001
13.3. Run research project and ensure permanent human presence at site Fongoli Savanna Research Project Since 2001

Conservation activities list (Junker et al. 2017)

Challenges

Table 5. Challenges reported for Fongoli Savanna Chimpanzee Project

Challenge Source
Not reported

Research activities

The Fongoli chimpanzees have been under study since 2001 and were fully habituated by 2005. A permanent research presence has existed at the site since the start of the project. A wide range of topics have been studied at the Fongoli site, including aspects related to behavior, culture, feeding ecology, physiology, isotopes, parasite loading, enthoprimatology, and sociality, among many others.

Documented behaviours

Table 6. Great ape behaviors reported for Fongoli Savanna Chimpanzee Project

Behavior Source
Ant dipping Pruetz and Bertolani 2009
Ant eating Pruetz and Bertolani 2009
Cave use Pruetz 2007
Lethal intragroup aggression Pruetz et al. 2017
Making ground nests Pruetz et al. 2008
Nighttime activity Pruetz 2018
Pool use Pruetz and Bertolani 2009
Termite fishing McGrew et al. 2005; Bogart and Pruetz 2008, 2012
Tool assisted hunting Pruetz and Bertolani 2007; Pruetz et al. 2015


References

Bogart, S. L., & Pruetz, J. D. (2008). Ecological context of savanna chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes verus) termite fishing at Fongoli, Senegal. American Journal of Primatology: Official Journal of the American Society of Primatologists, 70(6), 605-612. v Bogart, S. L., & Pruetz, J. D. (2011). Insectivory of savanna chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) at Fongoli, Senegal. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 145(1), 11-20.
Lindshield, S., Bogart, S. L., Gueye, M., Ndiaye, P. I., & Pruetz, J. D. (2019). Informing Protection Efforts for Critically Endangered Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) and Sympatric Mammals amidst Rapid Growth of Extractive Industries in Senegal. Folia Primatologica, 90(2), 124-136.
McGrew, W. C., Pruetz, J. D., & Fulton, S. J. (2005). Chimpanzees use tools to harvest social insects at Fongoli, Senegal. Folia Primatologica, 76(4), 222-226.
Ontl, K. M. B. (2017). Chimpanzees in the Island Of Gold: Impacts of artisanal small-scale gold mining on chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) in Fongoli, Senegal.
Pruetz, J. D. (2006). Feeding ecology of savanna chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) at Fongoli, Senegal. Feeding ecology in apes and other primates, 326-364.
Pruetz, J. D. (2007). Evidence of cave use by savanna chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) at Fongoli, Senegal: implications for thermoregulatory behavior. Primates, 48(4), 316-319.
Pruetz, J. D. (2018). Nocturnal behavior by a diurnal ape, the West African chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes verus), in a savanna environment at Fongoli, Senegal. American journal of physical anthropology, 166(3), 541-548.
Pruetz, J. D., & Bertolani, P. (2007). Savanna chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes verus, hunt with tools. Current biology, 17(5), 412-417.
Pruetz, J. D., & Bertolani, P. (2009). Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes verus) behavioral responses to stresses associated with living in a savanna-mosaic environment: implications for hominin adaptations to open habitats. PaleoAnthropology, 252.
Pruetz, J. D., & Herzog, N. M. (2017). Savanna chimpanzees at Fongoli, Senegal, navigate a fire landscape. Current Anthropology, 58(S16), S337-S350.
Pruetz, J. D., & Kante, D. (2010). Successful return of a wild infant chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes verus) to its natal group after capture by poachers. African Primates, 7(1), 35.
Pruetz, J. D., & LaDuke, T. C. (2010). Brief communication: Reaction to fire by savanna chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) at Fongoli, Senegal: Conceptualization of" fire behavior" and the case for a chimpanzee model. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 141(4), 646-650.
Pruetz, J. D., Bertolani, P., Ontl, K. B., Lindshield, S., Shelley, M., & Wessling, E. G. (2015). New evidence on the tool-assisted hunting exhibited by chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) in a savannah habitat at Fongoli, Sénégal. Royal Society Open Science, 2(4), 140507.
Pruetz, J. D., Fulton, S. J., Marchant, L. F., McGrew, W. C., Schiel, M., & Waller, M. (2008). Arboreal nesting as anti-predator adaptation by savanna chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) in southeastern Senegal. American Journal of Primatology: Official Journal of the American Society of Primatologists, 70(4), 393-401.
Pruetz, J. D., Marchant, L. F., Arno, J., & McGrew, W. C. (2002). Survey of savanna chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) in southeastern Senegal. American Journal of Primatology: Official Journal of the American Society of Primatologists, 58(1), 35-43.
Waller, M. T., & Pruetz, J. (2016). Competition between chimpanzees and humans: the effects of harvesting non-timber forest products. In Ethnoprimatology (pp. 157-177). Springer, Cham.
Wessling, E. G., Kühl, H. S., Mundry, R., Deschner, T., & Pruetz, J. D. (2018). The costs of living at the edge: Seasonal stress in wild savanna-dwelling chimpanzees. Journal of human evolution, 121, 1-11.
Wessling, E.G., Eshuis, H., Llana, M., Pacheco, L., Pruetz, J.D., & H.S. Kühl. (In Review). Ecological and climatic gradients correlate with decreasing savanna chimpanzee (Pan trodglodytes verus) densities at the range limit. Int J Primatol.


Page completed by: A.P.E.S. Wiki Team Date: 20/11/2019

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