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[[East Africa]] > [[Uganda]] > [[Toro-Semliki Wildlife Reserve (TSWR)]]
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[[East Africa]] > [[Uganda]] > [[Kyambura Wildlife Reserve]]
  
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'''[https://wiki-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Toro-Semliki_Wildlife_Reserve_(TSWR)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=fr&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Français]''' | '''[https://wiki-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Toro-Semliki_Wildlife_Reserve_(TSWR)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=pt&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Português]''' | '''[https://wiki-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Toro-Semliki_Wildlife_Reserve_(TSWR)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=es&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Español]''' | '''[https://wiki-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Toro-Semliki_Wildlife_Reserve_(TSWR)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=id&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Bahasa Indonesia]''' | '''[https://wiki-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Toro-Semliki_Wildlife_Reserve_(TSWR)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=ms&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Melayu]'''
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'''[https://wiki-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Kyambura_Wildlife_Reserve?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=fr&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Français]''' | '''[https://wiki-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Kyambura_Wildlife_Reserve?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=pt&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Português]''' | '''[https://wiki-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Kyambura_Wildlife_Reserve?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=es&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Español]''' | '''[https://wiki-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Kyambura_Wildlife_Reserve?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=id&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Bahasa Indonesia]''' | '''[https://wiki-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Kyambura_Wildlife_Reserve?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=ms&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Melayu]'''
  
 
__TOC__
 
__TOC__
 
= Summary =
 
= Summary =
  
−
<div style="float: right">{{#display_map: height=190px | width=300px | scrollzoom=off | zoom=5 | layers= OpenStreetMap, OpenTopoMap|0.897222° 30.363333° ~[[Toro-Semliki Wildlife Reserve (TSWR)]]~Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii}}</div>
+
<div style="float: right">{{#display_map: height=190px | width=300px | scrollzoom=off | zoom=5 | layers= OpenStreetMap, OpenTopoMap|-0.11037 , 30.18194~[[Kyambura Wildlife Reserve]]~Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii}}</div>
 
= Site characteristics =
 
= Site characteristics =
  
−
Toro Semliki Wildlife Reserve is located in western Uganda, between 00 50’–10 05’N, 300 20’–300 35’E, covering an area of 548 km2), that spans across Ntoroko and Kabarole districts (Samson, 2012) . It was originally established as a game reserve in 1926 with a major aim of protecting the large number of Uganda Kobs in the area (Lamprey and Michelmore, 1996). The Reserve is set on the floor a rift valley landscape, between the Rwenzori Mountains, Kijura Escarpment, and Lake Albert, hence its a relatively low altitude starting from around 700m above sea level. The area experiences two distinct Wet seasons (March to May and August to November) with hot temperatures reach around 30°C during daytime and drop up to 18°C during nighttime.  
+
Kyambura Wildlife Reserve (KWR) which includes the Kyambura gorge is located south of Lake George and east of Queen Elizabeth National Park  (QENP), where the Kazinga Channel leaves the lake, and flows towards Lake Albert (Zwick et al., 1997). Natural barriers formed by Kazinga Channel and Kyambura gorge make it possible to isolate KWR from QENP, however both park and reserve are jointly managed by Uganda Wildlife Authority as part of Queen Elizabeth Protected Area (UWA, 2012).
  
−
The dominant vegetation type is the open acacia-combretum woodland and grassy savannah, interspersed with patches of Borassus palm forest, significant belts of riparian woodland along the main watercourses, as well as some extensive swamps towards Lake Albert (Hunt and McGrew 2002). The most common main canopy riverine tree species is Ugandan ironwood (Cynometra alexandri), followed by Millettia dura and Kigelia africana.  The understory is dominated by Beilschmiedia ugandensis.  Other common species include; Celtis africana, C. intergrifolia, C. mildbraedii, C. brownii, Albizia grandibracteata, A. coriaria, Chrysophyllum sp.,  Phoenix reclinata, Polyscias fulva, and Cola gigantea (Hunt & Lee, 2020; from SCP records)
 
  
−
Mammalian species commonly sited at the reserve include Elephant, Buffalo, Uganda Kob, Waterbuck, Warthog, Giant Forest Hog and Hippopotamus. The area boosts a diverse avian population, with a checklist reaching over 462 bird speciesPrimates are also fairly represented at site, with species such as Baboons, and Monkeys including Vervet, Red-tailed, and Black and White Colobus thriving in the area  (UWA, 2019).
 
  
−
Four communities living around the reserve namely; Karugutu-Kyabandara community, Rwebisengo community, Ntoroko fishing community, and Kasesenge–Kyakabaseke community (UWA, 2019)
+
KWR was first gazette as a Controlled Hunting area in 1962 and then raised to of a Game Reserve in 1965 (UWA, 2023). It was used for licensed hunting and cropping however due to civil unrest between 1970s and 1980s, level of uncontrolled hunting increased sharply, which lead to the demise of many big game mammals (Zwick et al., 1997). After the Uganda Wildlife Statute of 1996 changed the name of all game reserves to wildlife reserves, the reserve became formally known as the Kyambura Wildlife Reserve and hunting concession was terminated in 1999 due to illegal hunting (UWA, 2012).
  
−
Great apes particularly the chimpanzees are registered at the reserve, with over three chimpanzee communities (Hunt & Lee, 2020):  Mugiri community with roughly 150 chimpanzees resident in Mugiri River Forest: Nyabaroga community which speculated to be relatively safe and supporting about 50 individuals, UWA rangers still report pant-hoots there: Muzizi community; Pant-hoots and chimp nests were observed in Muzizi River forest several times for period 1996 and 1997. However subsequent visits to the same area in 2008, showed this forest block had disappeared due to illegal logging hence status of chimpanzees here is unknown.
 
  
−
'''Table 1. Basic site information for Toro-Semliki Wildlife Reserve (TSWR)'''
+
 
 +
KWR terrain is characterized by small hills, lying between an altitude of 700- 1,1 00m. It has about 7 volcanic craters with both saline and fresh water (Zwick et al., 1997). The Kyambura Gorge created due to faulting activities cuts into a gentle savannah landscape with Kyambura River flowing inside the gorge. The gorge covers a distance of 16kms with the highest steep side being 100 metres from the river floor and spanning a varying breadth of 50-150 meters.  The vegetation is a riverine forest consisting mainly of Cynometra sp. and Ficus sp. (Kruger et al., 1998).  Forest grades into a swamp forest and papyrus swamp near the mouth of Kyambura river. The eastern border follows Buhindagi river from Lake George, south-east to Kasyoha-Kitomi Forest Reserve (Zwick et al., 1997), where it forms an important migratory link known as Kyambura Gorge-Kasyoha Kitomi corrido while the north is bordered by savannah grassland (UWA, 2012)
 +
 
 +
 
 +
 
 +
KWR has ecosystem similar to QENP, thus hosting almost similar fauna which include mammals such as hippopotamus, lions, leopard, elephant, buffalo, a variety of antelope and other small ungulates (uwa, 2023). A total of 332 bird species were reported by Zwick et al (1997).
 +
 
 +
 
 +
 
 +
Kyambura Gorge is noted for its relatively high concentration of primates which include the chimpanzees hence famously referred to as the valley of apes by many tourists. The chimpanzees at the gorge are said to form one community of  less than 30 individuals (UWA, 2012), which is said to be isolated after corridors connecting it to larger forests like Kalinzu and Maramagambo were cleared, raising concerns of inbreeding and mutations.
 +
 
 +
'''Table 1. Basic site information for Kyambura Wildlife Reserve'''
 
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Site_characteristics-table"
 
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Site_characteristics-table"
 
|Species
 
|Species
Line 25: Line 33:
 
|-
 
|-
 
|Area
 
|Area
−
|548
+
|157
 
|-
 
|-
 
|Coordinates
 
|Coordinates
−
|0.897222° N 30.363333° E
+
|-0.11037 ,  30.18194
 
|-
 
|-
 
|Type of site
 
|Type of site
Line 34: Line 42:
 
|-
 
|-
 
|Habitat types
 
|Habitat types
−
|Subtropical/tropical swamp forest, Savanna, Shrubland, Grassland
+
|Subtropical/tropical swamp forest, Savanna, Grassland, "Wetlands (lakes, rivers, streams, bogs, marshes)"
 
|-
 
|-
 
|Type of governance
 
|Type of governance
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−
'''Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for Toro-Semliki Wildlife Reserve (TSWR)'''
+
'''Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for Kyambura Wildlife Reserve'''
 
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Ape_status-table"
 
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Ape_status-table"
 
!Species
 
!Species
Line 59: Line 67:
 
|-
 
|-
 
|Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii
 
|Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii
−
|1999
 
−
|66.06(40-90)
 
 
|
 
|
 +
|55.05 (30-70)
 
|
 
|
−
|Toro Semliki WR
+
|
 +
|Kyambura Wildlife Reserve
 
|Line transects
 
|Line transects
−
|(Plumptre, Cox & Mugume 2003)
+
|Plumptre, Cox & Mugume 2003)
−
|Survey classified site as a low density site hence density estimates were not possible. Only 60 nest building chimpanzees were estimated by study
+
|Survey classified site as a low density site hence density estimates were not possible. Only 50 nest building chimpanzees were estimated by study
 
|
 
|
 
|}
 
|}
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−
'''Table 3. Threats to apes reported for Toro-Semliki Wildlife Reserve (TSWR)'''
+
'''Table 3. Threats to apes reported for Kyambura Wildlife Reserve'''
 
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Threats-table"
 
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Threats-table"
 
!Category
 
!Category
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|-
 
|-
 
|2 Agriculture & aquaculture
 
|2 Agriculture & aquaculture
−
|2.1 Annual & perennial non-timber crops
+
|2.1.2 Small-holder farming
 
|Present (unknown severity)
 
|Present (unknown severity)
−
|"The range of the Mugiri chimpanzees is
+
|Intensive cultivation along the Kyambura River restricting favorable habitats for chimpanzees (WCS, 2008)
−
limited to the northeast by tea estates" (Samson, 2012).
+
|1990- Ongoing
−
Tea plantations increased in coverage 0.56%-0.99% 1995-2006 (Patrick et al.,2012)
 
−
|Ongoing: 1995
 
 
|-
 
|-
 
|5 Biological resource use
 
|5 Biological resource use
−
|5.3.1 Subsistence logging
+
|5.3 Logging & wood harvesting
 
|Present (unknown severity)
 
|Present (unknown severity)
−
|Illegal logging for charcoal burning (Hunt & Lee, 2020)
+
|Logging and harvesting of wood has reduced abundance of fig trees which are critical to survival of primates in such savanna habitats (WSC, 2008)
−
|On going; first documented in1996
+
|2008- Ongoing
 
|-
 
|-
−
|2 Agriculture & aquaculture
+
|
−
|2.1.2 Small-holder farming
+
|5.1.2 Unintentional effects (species being assessed is not the target)
−
|Present (unknown severity)
+
|Low (up to 30% of population affected)
−
|"Peasant holdings at the top of the escarpment" (Samson, 2012)
+
|Poaching for commercial and subsistence use, using firearms (including automatic weapons such as the AK47), wire snares, nets and various types of foot traps (UWA, 2012), High intensity registered between 1970s -1980 due to civil unrests  (Zwick et al., 1997). Risk of chimpanzees being ensnared or trapped by traps made for other animals.
−
|Ongoing 2012
+
|1970-Ongoing
 +
|-
 +
|4 Transportation & service corridors
 +
|4.1 Roads & railroads
 +
|Low (up to 30% of population affected)
 +
|The growing road network and power line, cutting through the Kyambura gorge corridor and its escarpment banks that links Kyambura and Kasyoha-Kitomi, make deep intrusions into the underground riparian forest that is a home to chimpanzees.
 +
|1997-ongoing
 
|-
 
|-
−
|5 Biological resource use
+
|4 Transportation & service corridors
−
|5.3.2 Commercial logging
+
|4.2 Utility & service lines
−
|Present (unknown severity)
+
|Low (up to 30% of population affected)
−
|The Muzizi River forest block disappeared by 2008 due to deforestation from illegal logging (Hunt & Lee, 2020)
+
|The hydropower projects was proposed for development in 2011 (UWA, 2012), constructed in 2017 and made operational in 2019
−
|On going; first documented in1996
+
|2017-ongoing
 
|-
 
|-
 
|6 Human intrusions & disturbance
 
|6 Human intrusions & disturbance
 
|6.2 War, civil unrest & military exercises
 
|6.2 War, civil unrest & military exercises
−
|Present (unknown severity)
+
|Low (up to 30% of population affected)
−
|Political instability involving Allied Democratic Front ADF counter response by Uganda Peoples Defense Force UPDF, with activities such as gunfire disrupt ranges of chimpanzees. Started around 1997 and peaked 2000  (Hunt & Lee, 2020: Patrick et al., 2012: Edroma et al., 1997)
+
|civil unrest between 1970s and early 1980s
−
|On going less severe: 1997
+
|1970-1980
−
|-
 
−
|3 Energy production & mining
 
−
|3.1 Oil & gas drilling
 
−
|Present (unknown severity)
 
−
|Since 1997 seismic surveys in the reserve and outside the reserve are reported
 
−
|On going:1997
 
 
|-
 
|-
−
|5 Biological resource use
+
|7 Natural system modifications
−
|5.1 Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals
+
|7.1 Fire & fire suppression
−
|Present (unknown severity)
+
|Low (up to 30% of population affected)
−
|Unintentional effect on Chimpanzees. Poaching by organized groups particularly from Congo using snares, dogs, automatic weapons, spears (Patrick et al., 2012)
+
|The fires are mostly started by poachers who use fires as a means of hunting. Other sources of fires include un extinguished cigarette butts and fires originating from community farmland or intentionally set by the community members (UWA, 2012)
−
|On going, less intense: 1978
+
|2012- 0ngoing
−
|-
 
−
|11 Climate change & severe weather
 
−
|11.1 Habitat shifting & alteration
 
−
|Present (unknown severity)
 
−
|Sensitivity of habitats to climate variability, rainfall variations affecting frequency and intensity of fires (Patrick et al., 2012)
 
−
Chimpanzees live in a relatively dry habitat affected by periodic droughts causing drying up of water points (UWA,2020)
 
−
|Ongoing: 2012. Expected to be more severe in the near future
 
 
|}
 
|}
  
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−
'''Table 4. Conservation activities reported for Toro-Semliki Wildlife Reserve (TSWR)'''
+
'''Table 4. Conservation activities reported for Kyambura Wildlife Reserve'''
 
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Conservation_activities-table"
 
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Conservation_activities-table"
 
!Category
 
!Category
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!Year of activity
 
!Year of activity
 
|-
 
|-
−
|5 Protection & restoration
+
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
−
|5.1 Create buffer zones around protected ape habitat
+
|2.13 Provide sustainable alternative livelihoods; establish fish- or domestic meat farms
−
|Management zones were created which include; Tourism, Administrative and Wilderness zones (UWA, 2020). Wilderness zones are established to protect critical habitat for endangered and vulnerable species such as Chimpanzees
+
|Diversifying local livelihoods and improving smart crop husbandry under The Kyambura Gorge Eco-tourism Project
 +
|Volcanoes Safaris and Volcanoes Safaris Partnership, Jane Goodall Institute Uganda Trust,
 +
|2009-Ongoing
 +
|-
 +
|8 Permanent presence
 +
|8.2 Run tourist projects and ensure permanent human presence at site
 +
|UWA establised the Kyambura base camp
 
|Uganda Wildlife Authority
 
|Uganda Wildlife Authority
−
|Ongoing: 2020
+
|1997- Ongoing
 
|-
 
|-
−
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
+
|5 Protection & restoration
−
|2.13 Provide sustainable alternative livelihoods; establish fish- or domestic meat farms
+
|5.9 Resettle illegal human communities (i.e., in a protected area) to another location
−
|WCS secured support through the USAID WILD project to work with communities next to the Toro-Semliki Wildlife Reserve. The aim was to reduce pressure on natural resources and elicit community support for conservation efforts. This is done through engaging environmentally friendly tourism-related enterprises such as  beekeeping, art and crafts, music, dance and drama to generate income.
+
|A group of subsistence farmers from around reserve an from southern Uganda annexed land in south-east of the reserve. These encroachers evicted in 1992
−
|WCS, USAID WILD project and UWA
+
|Zwilling Safari AG Limited
−
|Ongoing: 2007
+
|1970-1922
 
|-
 
|-
 
|5 Protection & restoration
 
|5 Protection & restoration
−
|5.2 Legally protect ape habitat
+
|5.4 Create natural habitat patches (including corridors)
−
|Proposal to elevate status from Wildlife reserve to National Park, so as to afford more protection to area
+
|Volcano Safaris in Kyambura, are buying off communities in the corridor that links Kyambura Gorge to Kasyoha Kitomi Forest Reserve
−
|Uganda Wildlife Authority and Uganda government
+
|Volcano Safaris, Uganda Wildlife Authority
−
|Near future
+
|2012-Ongoing
 +
|-
 +
|
 +
|5.6 Habitat restoration (e.g., tree planting)
 +
|Restoration this ecosystem by planting over 6000 trees as a way of recovering the vegetation, in corridors such as Kyambura Gorge-Kasyoha Kitomi corrido
 +
|Volcano Safaris, Uganda Wildlife Authority
 +
|2012-Ongoing
 +
|-
 +
|4 Education & awareness
 +
|4.1 Educate local communities about apes and sustainable use
 +
|Expanding community outreach programs through the Jane Goodall Institute Roots & Shoots program and the Volcanoes Safaris Partnership Community Centre, teaching them of the benefits of tourism and the natural value of the wildlife diversity in the area.
 +
|Volcanoes Safaris and Volcanoes Safaris Partnership, Jane Goodall Institute Uganda Trust,
 +
|2021-Ongoing
 
|-
 
|-
−
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
+
|5 Protection & restoration
−
|2.3 Conduct regular anti-poaching patrols
+
|5.1 Create buffer zones around protected ape habitat
−
|Increased patrol efforts and improved report by communities to curb poaching
+
|South-east part of the reserve is protected as a wilderness zone, receiving minimal disturbance
 
|Uganda Wildlife Authority
 
|Uganda Wildlife Authority
−
|Ongoing; 2012
+
|2012-Ongoing
 
|-
 
|-
−
|4 Education & awareness
+
|5 Protection & restoration
−
|4.2 Involve local community in ape research and conservation management
+
|5.2 Legally protect ape habitat
−
|Project takes in locals as volunteers and also employ local stuff to work as field assistants (Hunt & Lee, 2020)
+
|Area gazetted as a wildlife reserve in 1966
−
|Semliki Chimpanzee Project
+
 
−
|Ongoing; 1996
+
Area is considered as an Important Bird Area (IBA) (UWA, 2012: Zwick et al., 1997)
 +
|BirdLife International
 +
|1997-Ongoing
 
|}
 
|}
  
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−
'''Table 5. Challenges reported for Toro-Semliki Wildlife Reserve (TSWR)'''
+
'''Table 5. Challenges reported for Kyambura Wildlife Reserve'''
 
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Challenges-table"
 
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Challenges-table"
 
!Challenges
 
!Challenges
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|2 Resources and capacity
 
|2 Resources and capacity
 
|2.2 Lack of staff
 
|2.2 Lack of staff
−
|(Hunt & Lee, 2020: UWA, 2020)
+
|(UWA,2012)
−
|2012
+
|2011-Ongoing
 
|-
 
|-
 
|2 Resources and capacity
 
|2 Resources and capacity
−
|2.3 General lack of funding
+
|2.7 Lack of infrastructure
−
|(Hunt & Lee, 2020: UWA, 2020)
+
|(UWA,2012)
−
|2012
+
|2011-Ongoing
 
|-
 
|-
−
|4 Institutional support
+
|5 Ecological context
−
|4.1 Lack of law enforcement
+
|5.1 Ecological constraints (e.g., susceptibility to climate change, difficult terrain)
−
|(Hunt & Lee, 2020: Patrick et al.,2012)
+
|(UWA,2012)
−
|2012
+
|2012-Ongoing
−
|-
 
−
|2 Resources and capacity
 
−
|2.1 Lack of capacity/training
 
−
|(UWA, 2020)
 
−
|2020
 
−
|-
 
−
|2 Resources and capacity
 
−
|2.5 Lack of equipment/transportation
 
−
|(UWA, 2020)
 
−
|2020
 
−
|-
 
−
|6 Safety and stability
 
−
|6.3 Civil unrest/war
 
−
|(Patrick et al.,2012)
 
−
|1997
 
−
|-
 
−
|3 Engaged community
 
−
|3.1 General lack of community engagement or support
 
−
|(UWA, 2020)
 
−
|2020
 
 
|}
 
|}
  
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−
'''Table 6. Enablers reported for Toro-Semliki Wildlife Reserve (TSWR)'''
+
'''Table 6. Enablers reported for Kyambura Wildlife Reserve'''
 
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="enabler-table"
 
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="enabler-table"
 
!Enablers
 
!Enablers
Line 239: Line 238:
 
|2 Resources and capacity
 
|2 Resources and capacity
 
|2.1 Sufficient staff
 
|2.1 Sufficient staff
−
|(UWA, 2020)
+
|(UWA,2012)
−
|
+
|2011-Ongoing
 
|-
 
|-
 
|2 Resources and capacity
 
|2 Resources and capacity
−
|2.2 Sufficient funding
+
|2.4 Adequate data to inform and evaluate conservation actions
−
|(UWA, 2020)
+
|(UWA,2012)
−
|
+
|Near future
 
|-
 
|-
−
|4 Institutional support
+
|2 Resources and capacity
−
|4.2 Strong government support
+
|2.6 External partnerships that add expertise or resources
−
|(UWA, 2020)
+
|(UWA,2012)
−
|
+
|2012-Ongoing
−
|-
 
−
|3 Engaged community
 
−
|3.6 Local community engagement and support
 
−
|(UWA, 2020)
 
−
|
 
−
|-
 
−
|
 
−
|Other (Elevate status from Wildlife reserve to National Park))
 
−
|(UWA, 2020)
 
−
|2020
 
 
|}
 
|}
  
 
= Research activities =
 
= Research activities =
  
−
Researchers from the University of Indiana have been studying chimpanzees in the riverine forest at Mugiri under The Semliki Chimpanzee Project, founded in 1996
+
The prevalence and diagnostics of Entodiniomorphid Ciliate Troglocorys cava in populations of wild chimpanzees (Pomajbíková et al., 2011)
 +
 
 +
 
 +
 
 +
Prevalence of Simian Immunodeficiency Virus Infection in Chimpanzees (Rudicell et al., 2011)
 +
 
 +
 
 +
 
 +
influence of chimpanzees on guereza group size and composition (Kruger et al., 1998)
  
 
= Documented behaviours =
 
= Documented behaviours =
Line 271: Line 268:
  
  
−
'''Table 7. Behaviours documented for Toro-Semliki Wildlife Reserve (TSWR)'''
+
'''Table 7. Behaviours documented for Kyambura Wildlife Reserve'''
 
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="behaviours-table"
 
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="behaviours-table"
 
!Behavior
 
!Behavior
 
!Source
 
!Source
 
|-
 
|-
−
|Selective insectivory
+
|
−
|Webster et al. 2014
+
|
−
|-
 
−
|Well digging by wild chimpanzees
 
−
|McGrew et al. 2007
 
−
|-
 
−
|Coprophagy
 
−
|Payne et al. 2008
 
−
|-
 
−
|Grooming Hand-Clasp
 
−
|Webster et al. 2019
 
−
|-
 
−
|Chimpanzee nesting (morphology and ecology of arboreal sleeping platforms)
 
−
|Samson (2012)
 
−
|-
 
−
|Chimpanzee pith folding
 
−
|McGrew & Hunt (2011)
 
 
|}
 
|}
  
Line 309: Line 291:
 
= References =
 
= References =
  
−
Edroma, E., Rosen, N. and Miller, P. 1997. (eds) Conserving the Chimpanzees of Uganda. Population and habitat viability assessment for Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii. IUCN/SSC Conservation Breeding Specialist Group, Apple Valley, MN.
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Katswera, J., Mutekanga, N. M., & Twesigye, C. K. (2022). Wildlife Corridors and Regional Biodiversity Conservation around Selected Wildlife Protected Areas in Uganda.
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Hunt, K. D. & Lee, G.J. (2020). "The Toro-Semliki Wildlife Reserve". Bloomington, Indiana, United States: Indiana University: Semliki Chimpanzee Project. https://semliki.sitehost.iu.edu/. Retrieved on  5th November 2024.  
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Krüger, O., Affeldt, E., Brackmann, M., & Milhahn, K. (1998). Group size and composition of Colobus guereza in Kyambura Gorge, southwest Uganda, in relation to chimpanzee activity. International Journal of Primatology, 19, 287-297.
  
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Hunt, K. D., & McGrew, W. C. (2002). Chimpanzees in the dry habitats of Assirik, Senegal and Semliki wildlife reserve, Uganda. Behavioural diversity in chimpanzees and bonobos, 1, 35-51.
 
  
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Lamprey, R. H., & Michelmore, F. (1996). The wildlife protected areas of Uganda: preliminary aerial survey results and their assessment plus initial recommendations. Ministry of Tourism, Wildlife, and Antiquities.
 
  
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McGrew, W. C., & Hunt, K. D. (2011). < Note> Chimpanzee Pith-Folding at Toro-Semliki Wildlife Reserve, Uganda. Pan Africa News, 18(2), 15-18.
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Pomajbíková, K., Petrželková, K. J., Petrášová, J., Profousová, I., Kalousová, B., Jirků, M., ... & Modrý, D. (2012). Distribution of the entodiniomorphid ciliate Troglocorys cava Tokiwa, Modrý, Ito, Pomajbíková, Petrželková, & Imai,(Entodiniomorphida: Blepharocorythidae) in wild and captive chimpanzees. Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology, 59(1), 97-99.
  
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McGrew, W. C., Marchant, L. F., & Hunt, K. D. (2007). Etho-archaeology of manual laterality: Well digging by wild chimpanzees. Folia Primatologica, 78(4), 240-244.
 
  
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McLennan, M. R. (2011). < Note> Preliminary Observations of Hand-Clasp Grooming by Chimpanzees at Bulindi, Uganda. Pan Africa News, 18(2), 18-20.
 
  
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Patrick, R., Patrick, D., & Hunt, K. D. (2012). Long term changes at Toro-Semliki wildlife reserve. Long-Term Changes in Africa’s Rift Valley., 56-69.
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Rudicell, R. S., Piel, A. K., Stewart, F., Moore, D. L., Learn, G. H., Li, Y., ... & Hahn, B. H. (2011). High prevalence of simian immunodeficiency virus infection in a community of savanna chimpanzees. Journal of virology, 85(19), 9918-9928.
  
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Payne, C. L. R., Webster, T. H., & Hunt, K. D. (2008). < Note> Coprophagy by the semi-habituated chimpanzees of Semliki, Uganda. Pan Africa News, 15(2), 29-32.
 
  
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Plumptre, A. J., Cox, D., & Mugume, S. (2003). The status of chimpanzees in Uganda. Albertine Rift Technical Report Series No. 2. Wildlife Conservation Society
 
  
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Samson, D. R. (2012). The chimpanzee nest quantified: morphology and ecology of arboreal sleeping platforms within the dry habitat site of Toro-Semliki Wildlife Reserve, Uganda. Primates, 53, 357-364.
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UWA. (2012). Queen Elizabeth National Park, Kyambura Wildlife Reserve and Kigezi Wildlife Reserve. General Management Plan (2011 - 2021). Kampala, Uganda
  
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UWA. (2020). Toro-Semliki Wildlife Reserve General Management Plan 2020/21 – 2029/30.  Kampala, Uganda
 
  
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Uganda Wildlife Authority (2019). "Toro-Semliki Wildlife Reserve". Kampala, Uganda. https://ugandawildlife.org/wildlifereserves/toro-semliki/. Retrieved on 5th November 2024.
 
  
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WCS. (2021). Human Livelihoods. https://programs.wcs.org/uganda/Initiatives/Human-Livelihoods.aspx. Retrieved on 20th November, 2024.
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Zwick, K.L (Ed.), Stubblefield, L., Allan, C., Sivell, D., Lloyd, J., and Cunneyworth, P. 1997. Methods Manual. Frontier
  
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Webster, T. H., Hodson, P. R., & Hunt, K. D. (2009). < Note> Grooming Hand-Clasp by Chimpanzees of the Mugiri Community, Toro-Semliki Wildlife Reserve, Uganda. Pan Africa News, 16(1), 5-7.
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Protected Areas Project Baseline Surveys Programme. The Society for Environmental Exploration, London & Uganda WiKampala.
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Webster, T. H., McGrew, W. C., Marchant, L. F., Payne, C. L., & Hunt, K. D. (2014). Selective insectivory at Toro-Semliki, Uganda: Comparative analyses suggest no ‘savanna’chimpanzee pattern. Journal of human evolution, 71, 20-27.
 
  
  
  
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'''Page completed by: '''Steven Joel Basiibye basiibyestevens5@gmail.com''' Date:''' 2024-11-20 07:03:00
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'''Page completed by: '''Steven Joel Basiibye basiibyestevens5@gmail.com''' Date:''' 45618.920138888891

Revision as of 16:02, 19 December 2024

East Africa > Uganda > Kyambura Wildlife Reserve

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Summary

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Site characteristics

Kyambura Wildlife Reserve (KWR) which includes the Kyambura gorge is located south of Lake George and east of Queen Elizabeth National Park (QENP), where the Kazinga Channel leaves the lake, and flows towards Lake Albert (Zwick et al., 1997). Natural barriers formed by Kazinga Channel and Kyambura gorge make it possible to isolate KWR from QENP, however both park and reserve are jointly managed by Uganda Wildlife Authority as part of Queen Elizabeth Protected Area (UWA, 2012).


KWR was first gazette as a Controlled Hunting area in 1962 and then raised to of a Game Reserve in 1965 (UWA, 2023). It was used for licensed hunting and cropping however due to civil unrest between 1970s and 1980s, level of uncontrolled hunting increased sharply, which lead to the demise of many big game mammals (Zwick et al., 1997). After the Uganda Wildlife Statute of 1996 changed the name of all game reserves to wildlife reserves, the reserve became formally known as the Kyambura Wildlife Reserve and hunting concession was terminated in 1999 due to illegal hunting (UWA, 2012).


KWR terrain is characterized by small hills, lying between an altitude of 700- 1,1 00m. It has about 7 volcanic craters with both saline and fresh water (Zwick et al., 1997). The Kyambura Gorge created due to faulting activities cuts into a gentle savannah landscape with Kyambura River flowing inside the gorge. The gorge covers a distance of 16kms with the highest steep side being 100 metres from the river floor and spanning a varying breadth of 50-150 meters. The vegetation is a riverine forest consisting mainly of Cynometra sp. and Ficus sp. (Kruger et al., 1998). Forest grades into a swamp forest and papyrus swamp near the mouth of Kyambura river. The eastern border follows Buhindagi river from Lake George, south-east to Kasyoha-Kitomi Forest Reserve (Zwick et al., 1997), where it forms an important migratory link known as Kyambura Gorge-Kasyoha Kitomi corrido while the north is bordered by savannah grassland (UWA, 2012)


KWR has ecosystem similar to QENP, thus hosting almost similar fauna which include mammals such as hippopotamus, lions, leopard, elephant, buffalo, a variety of antelope and other small ungulates (uwa, 2023). A total of 332 bird species were reported by Zwick et al (1997).


Kyambura Gorge is noted for its relatively high concentration of primates which include the chimpanzees hence famously referred to as the valley of apes by many tourists. The chimpanzees at the gorge are said to form one community of less than 30 individuals (UWA, 2012), which is said to be isolated after corridors connecting it to larger forests like Kalinzu and Maramagambo were cleared, raising concerns of inbreeding and mutations.

Table 1. Basic site information for Kyambura Wildlife Reserve

Species Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii
Area 157
Coordinates
Type of site Conservation area
Habitat types Subtropical/tropical swamp forest, Savanna, Grassland, "Wetlands (lakes, rivers, streams, bogs, marshes)"
Type of governance Governance by government

IUCN habitat categories Site designations

Ape status

Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for Kyambura Wildlife Reserve

Species Year Abundance estimate (95% CI) Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI) Encounter rate (nests/km) Area Method Source Comments A.P.E.S. database ID
Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii 55.05 (30-70) Kyambura Wildlife Reserve Line transects Plumptre, Cox & Mugume 2003) Survey classified site as a low density site hence density estimates were not possible. Only 50 nest building chimpanzees were estimated by study

Threats

Table 3. Threats to apes reported for Kyambura Wildlife Reserve

Category Specific threats Threat level Description Year of threat
2 Agriculture & aquaculture 2.1.2 Small-holder farming Present (unknown severity) Intensive cultivation along the Kyambura River restricting favorable habitats for chimpanzees (WCS, 2008) 1990- Ongoing
5 Biological resource use 5.3 Logging & wood harvesting Present (unknown severity) Logging and harvesting of wood has reduced abundance of fig trees which are critical to survival of primates in such savanna habitats (WSC, 2008) 2008- Ongoing
5.1.2 Unintentional effects (species being assessed is not the target) Low (up to 30% of population affected) Poaching for commercial and subsistence use, using firearms (including automatic weapons such as the AK47), wire snares, nets and various types of foot traps (UWA, 2012), High intensity registered between 1970s -1980 due to civil unrests (Zwick et al., 1997). Risk of chimpanzees being ensnared or trapped by traps made for other animals. 1970-Ongoing
4 Transportation & service corridors 4.1 Roads & railroads Low (up to 30% of population affected) The growing road network and power line, cutting through the Kyambura gorge corridor and its escarpment banks that links Kyambura and Kasyoha-Kitomi, make deep intrusions into the underground riparian forest that is a home to chimpanzees. 1997-ongoing
4 Transportation & service corridors 4.2 Utility & service lines Low (up to 30% of population affected) The hydropower projects was proposed for development in 2011 (UWA, 2012), constructed in 2017 and made operational in 2019 2017-ongoing
6 Human intrusions & disturbance 6.2 War, civil unrest & military exercises Low (up to 30% of population affected) civil unrest between 1970s and early 1980s 1970-1980
7 Natural system modifications 7.1 Fire & fire suppression Low (up to 30% of population affected) The fires are mostly started by poachers who use fires as a means of hunting. Other sources of fires include un extinguished cigarette butts and fires originating from community farmland or intentionally set by the community members (UWA, 2012) 2012- 0ngoing

IUCN Threats list

Conservation activities

Table 4. Conservation activities reported for Kyambura Wildlife Reserve

Category Specific activity Description Implementing organization(s) Year of activity
2 Counter-wildlife crime 2.13 Provide sustainable alternative livelihoods; establish fish- or domestic meat farms Diversifying local livelihoods and improving smart crop husbandry under The Kyambura Gorge Eco-tourism Project Volcanoes Safaris and Volcanoes Safaris Partnership, Jane Goodall Institute Uganda Trust, 2009-Ongoing
8 Permanent presence 8.2 Run tourist projects and ensure permanent human presence at site UWA establised the Kyambura base camp Uganda Wildlife Authority 1997- Ongoing
5 Protection & restoration 5.9 Resettle illegal human communities (i.e., in a protected area) to another location A group of subsistence farmers from around reserve an from southern Uganda annexed land in south-east of the reserve. These encroachers evicted in 1992 Zwilling Safari AG Limited 1970-1922
5 Protection & restoration 5.4 Create natural habitat patches (including corridors) Volcano Safaris in Kyambura, are buying off communities in the corridor that links Kyambura Gorge to Kasyoha Kitomi Forest Reserve Volcano Safaris, Uganda Wildlife Authority 2012-Ongoing
5.6 Habitat restoration (e.g., tree planting) Restoration this ecosystem by planting over 6000 trees as a way of recovering the vegetation, in corridors such as Kyambura Gorge-Kasyoha Kitomi corrido Volcano Safaris, Uganda Wildlife Authority 2012-Ongoing
4 Education & awareness 4.1 Educate local communities about apes and sustainable use Expanding community outreach programs through the Jane Goodall Institute Roots & Shoots program and the Volcanoes Safaris Partnership Community Centre, teaching them of the benefits of tourism and the natural value of the wildlife diversity in the area. Volcanoes Safaris and Volcanoes Safaris Partnership, Jane Goodall Institute Uganda Trust, 2021-Ongoing
5 Protection & restoration 5.1 Create buffer zones around protected ape habitat South-east part of the reserve is protected as a wilderness zone, receiving minimal disturbance Uganda Wildlife Authority 2012-Ongoing
5 Protection & restoration 5.2 Legally protect ape habitat Area gazetted as a wildlife reserve in 1966

Area is considered as an Important Bird Area (IBA) (UWA, 2012: Zwick et al., 1997)

BirdLife International 1997-Ongoing

Conservation activities list (Junker et al. 2017)

Challenges

Table 5. Challenges reported for Kyambura Wildlife Reserve

Challenges Specific challenges Source Year(s)
2 Resources and capacity 2.2 Lack of staff (UWA,2012) 2011-Ongoing
2 Resources and capacity 2.7 Lack of infrastructure (UWA,2012) 2011-Ongoing
5 Ecological context 5.1 Ecological constraints (e.g., susceptibility to climate change, difficult terrain) (UWA,2012) 2012-Ongoing

Enablers

Table 6. Enablers reported for Kyambura Wildlife Reserve

Enablers Specific enablers Source Year(s)
2 Resources and capacity 2.1 Sufficient staff (UWA,2012) 2011-Ongoing
2 Resources and capacity 2.4 Adequate data to inform and evaluate conservation actions (UWA,2012) Near future
2 Resources and capacity 2.6 External partnerships that add expertise or resources (UWA,2012) 2012-Ongoing

Research activities

The prevalence and diagnostics of Entodiniomorphid Ciliate Troglocorys cava in populations of wild chimpanzees (Pomajbíková et al., 2011)


Prevalence of Simian Immunodeficiency Virus Infection in Chimpanzees (Rudicell et al., 2011)


influence of chimpanzees on guereza group size and composition (Kruger et al., 1998)

Documented behaviours

Table 7. Behaviours documented for Kyambura Wildlife Reserve

Behavior Source

Exposure to climate change impacts

External links

Relevant datasets

References

Katswera, J., Mutekanga, N. M., & Twesigye, C. K. (2022). Wildlife Corridors and Regional Biodiversity Conservation around Selected Wildlife Protected Areas in Uganda.


Krüger, O., Affeldt, E., Brackmann, M., & Milhahn, K. (1998). Group size and composition of Colobus guereza in Kyambura Gorge, southwest Uganda, in relation to chimpanzee activity. International Journal of Primatology, 19, 287-297.


Pomajbíková, K., Petrželková, K. J., Petrášová, J., Profousová, I., Kalousová, B., Jirků, M., ... & Modrý, D. (2012). Distribution of the entodiniomorphid ciliate Troglocorys cava Tokiwa, Modrý, Ito, Pomajbíková, Petrželková, & Imai,(Entodiniomorphida: Blepharocorythidae) in wild and captive chimpanzees. Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology, 59(1), 97-99.


Rudicell, R. S., Piel, A. K., Stewart, F., Moore, D. L., Learn, G. H., Li, Y., ... & Hahn, B. H. (2011). High prevalence of simian immunodeficiency virus infection in a community of savanna chimpanzees. Journal of virology, 85(19), 9918-9928.


UWA. (2012). Queen Elizabeth National Park, Kyambura Wildlife Reserve and Kigezi Wildlife Reserve. General Management Plan (2011 - 2021). Kampala, Uganda


Zwick, K.L (Ed.), Stubblefield, L., Allan, C., Sivell, D., Lloyd, J., and Cunneyworth, P. 1997. Methods Manual. Frontier

Protected Areas Project Baseline Surveys Programme. The Society for Environmental Exploration, London & Uganda WiKampala.


Page completed by: Steven Joel Basiibye basiibyestevens5@gmail.com Date: 45618.920138888891

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