Budongo Central Forest Reserve
Summary
- Eastern chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) are present in Budongo Central Forest Reserve.
- The population trend is decreasing.
- The site has a total size of 435 km².
- Key threats to chimpanzees are logging, hunting, transmission of respiratory diseases, and human encroachment.
- The Budongo Conservation Field Station (BCFS) is actively involved in the implementation of conservation activities, such as conservation awareness raising, alternative livelihood programs, and providing veterinary care.
- The BCFS was founded in 1990 by Professor Vernon Reynolds, who first started studying chimpanzees in the Budongo forest in 1962.
Site characteristics
The Budongo Forest is a moist, semi-deciduous tropical rain forest located at the top of the Albertine Rift, situated between 1° 37 N - 2° 03 N and 31° 22 - 31° 46 E. It is classified as a Central Forest Reserve and comprises 435 km² of continuous forest cover. In addition there are numerous strips of riverine forest, perhaps some 100 km in total, forming arms of forest that stretch out into the surrounding areas, mainly sugar cane plantations and other cropland. The forest is of a medium altitude (average 1,100m). The land slopes from southeast to northwest, and its four main rivers, the Waisoke, the Sonso, the Kamirambwa and the Siba, flow towards the northwest towards the Albertine Rift. Annual rainfall varies between about 1200 and 2200 mm (average 1600 mm). Most rain falls between March and May and between September and November with a dry season between December and February. At this time, the daytime heat can be substantial, food supply is low, and chimpanzees spend much time on the forest floor in deep shade. In general, however, temperatures are relatively even during the year varying between 19°C and 32°C. The nearest large town is Masindi, but much of the land around Budongo Forest is under cultivation with houses, villages, schools and markets (BCFS).
Table 1. Basic site information for Budongo Central Forest Reserve
| Area | 435 km² |
| Coordinates | 1.780 N, 31.572 E |
| Designation | Central Forest Reserve |
| Habitat types | Subtropical/tropical moist lowland forest, grassland, subtropical/tropical dry forest, subtropical/tropical heavily degraded former forest |
Ape status
Table 2. Ape population estimates in Budongo Central Forest Reserve
| Species | Year | Abundance estimate (95% CI) | Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI) | Encounter rate (nests/km) | Area | Method | Source | Comments | A.P.E.S. database ID |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Threats
Key threats to chimpanzees include snares set by hunters (typically targeting duiker and pigs), loss of trees around forest edge due to settlement, loss of trees inside forest due to timber extraction and charcoal production, and human-to-chimpanzee disease transmission (BCFS; Reynolds 2005)
Table 3. Threats to apes in Budongo Central Forest Reserve
| Category | Specific threats | Threat level | Quantified severity | Description | Year of threat |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1. Residential & commercial development | Absent | ||||
| 2. Agriculture & aquaculture | 2.1 Annual & perennial non-timber crops | Present, but threat severity is unknown | The forest edge is affected | Encroachment of forest habitat for farming (Hobaiter & Reynolds pers. comm. 2020; Reynolds 2005). | Ongoing (2020) |
| 3. Energy production & mining | Absent | ||||
| 4. Transportation & service corridors | Absent | ||||
| 5. Biological resource use | 5.1 Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals | High | The whole forest is affected. | Snares present in the forest (Hobaiter & Reynolds pers. comm. 2020; Reynolds 2005). | Ongoing (2020) |
| 5.3 Logging & wood harvesting | Present, but threat severity is unknown | The whole forest is affected. | Loss of trees for charcoal burning and firewood. Illegal logging is present throughout forest, in particular outside of the immediate research areas; includes chimpanzee feeding species (Hobaiter & Reynolds pers. comm. 2020; Reynolds 2005). | Ongoing (2020) | |
| 6. Human intrusion & disturbance | Absent | ||||
| 7. Natural system modifications | Absent | ||||
| 8. Invasive & other problematic species, genes, diseases | 8.4 Problematic species/diseases of unknown origin | High | The whole forest is affected. | Respiratory outbreaks that were typical are now more often lethal. Other sites in Uganda have confirmed similar respiratory pathogens of human origin (Asiimwe et al. 2019; Hobaiter & Reynolds pers. comm. 2020). | Ongoing (2020) |
| 9. Pollution | Absent | ||||
| 10. Geological Events | Absent | ||||
| 11. Climate change & severe weather | 11.1 Habitat shifting & alteration | Present, but threat severity is unknown | The whole forest is affected. | Some evidence that there is decreasing fruiting in forest trees, perhaps impacted by increase in overnight temperature lows (Eryenyu et al. 2019; Hobaiter & Reynolds pers. comm. 2020). | Ongoing (2020) |
| 12. Other options | Absent |
Conservation activities
Table 4. Conservation activities in Budongo Central Forest Reserve
| Category | Specific activity | Description | Year of activity |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1. Residential & commercial development | Not reported | ||
| 2. Agriculture & aquaculture | Studies on crop-raiding mitigation measures (e.g., buffer crops, resilient crops; Hobaiter & Reynolds pers. comm. 2020). | Ongoing (2020) | |
| 3. Energy production & mining | Not reported | ||
| 4. Transportation & service corridors | Not reported | ||
| 5. Biological resource use | 5.9. Regularly de-activate/remove ground snares | Presence of snare removers and Field Assistants daily in the forest (Hobaiter & Reynolds pers. comm. 2020; Reynolds 2005). | Ongoing (2020) |
| 5.17. Provide sustainable alternative livelihoods; establish fish- or domestic meat farms | Collaboration and sensitisation work with the local community (e.g. goat farming scheme, which aims to reduce reliance on bushmeat; Hobaiter & Reynolds pers. comm. 2020; Reynolds 2005; BCFS). | Ongoing (2020) | |
| 6. Human intrusion & disturbance | Not reported | ||
| 7. Natural system modifications | Not reported | ||
| 8. Invasive & other problematic species, genes, diseases | Not reported | ||
| 9. Pollution | Not reported | ||
| 10. Education & Awareness | 10.1. Educate local communities about primates and sustainable use | Community conservation clubs in local schools (Hobaiter & Reynolds pers. comm. 2020; Reynolds 2005). | Ongoing (2020) |
| 11. Habitat Protection | Not reported | ||
| 12. Species Management | Not reported | ||
| 13. Livelihood; Economic & Other Incentives | 13.1. Provide monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g. REDD, employment) | Projects to support alternative income generation for local families, in particular training opportunities for women (Hobaiter & Reynolds pers. comm. 2020; Reynolds 2005). | Ongoing (2020) |
| 13.2. Provide non-monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g. better education, infrastructure development) | Direct help to communities i.e. latrine improvements, domestic animal veterinary and human health services (Hobaiter & Reynolds pers. comm. 2020; Reynolds 2005). | Ongoing (2020) |
Challenges
In addition to a lack of law enforcement, oil extraction in Lake Albert which has cut a major road through the forest and increased local population density (Hobaiter & Reynolds pers. comm. 2020).
Table 5. Challenges reported for Budongo Central Forest Reserve
| Challenge | Source |
|---|---|
| Lack of law enforcement | Hobaiter & Reynolds pers. comm. 2020 |
Research activities
Research activities have been very extensive since 1990 (see BCFS). Current work includes chimpanzee communication, cognition, tool-use, demography, social behaviour, and health. Primate and avian behavioural ecology. Work on phenology and fruiting patterns (in particular in relation to an apparent decline in fruiting). Human-wildlife interactions, and human-wildlife health monitoring. Long-term data includes chimpanzee behavioural, demographic, health, and ranging data, phenological data, illegal activities data, and meteorological data (BCFS n.d.; Reynolds 2005)
Documented behaviours
Table 6. Ape behaviors reported for Budongo Central Forest Reserve
| Behavior | Source |
|---|---|
| Not reported |
External links
Budongo Conservation Field Station
Budongo Chimps Twitter
Budongo Conservation Field Station Facebook
Relevant datasets
References
Budongo Conservation Field Station (BCFS). (n.d.). Retrieved from: http://www.budongo.org/
Reynolds, V. (2005). The chimpanzees of the Budongo Forest: Ecology, behaviour, and conservation. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
Asiimwe, C., Akankwasa, W. & Mugabe, T. (2019). Prevalence and associated risk factors for respiratory disease outbreaks in habituated chimpanzee communities under chimpanzee health monitoring in the Albertine Rift or Uganda in the past five years. Paper presented at the 2nd African Primatological Society conference. Retrieved from: https://apsuganda.africanprimatologicalsociety.org/book-of-abstracts/
Eryenyu,D., Nyombi, H., Asiimwe, C., Businge, M., Muhanguzi, G. & Babweetera, F. (2019). Implications in change in fruiting phenology on primate foraging behavior. Paper presented at the 2nd African Primatological Society conference. Retrieved from: https://apsuganda.africanprimatologicalsociety.org/book-of-abstracts/
Page completed by: Cat Hobaiter & Vernon Reynolds Date: 19/11/2020