Budongo Central Forest Reserve
Summary
- Eastern chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) are present in Budongo Central Forest Reserve.
- The population size was estimated at 584 (CI: 356-723) for the year 2000.
- The population trend is decreasing.
- The site has a total size of 435 km².
- Key threats to chimpanzees are logging, hunting, transmission of respiratory diseases, and human encroachment.
- The Budongo Conservation Field Station (BCFS) is actively involved in the implementation of conservation activities, such as conservation awareness raising, alternative livelihood programs, and providing veterinary care.
- The BCFS was founded in 1990 by Professor Vernon Reynolds, who first started studying chimpanzees in the Budongo forest in 1962.
Site characteristics
The Budongo Forest is a moist, semi-deciduous tropical rain forest located at the top of the Albertine Rift, situated between 1° 37 N - 2° 03 N and 31° 22 - 31° 46 E. It is classified as a Central Forest Reserve and comprises 435 km² of continuous forest cover. In addition there are numerous strips of riverine forest, perhaps some 100 km in total, forming arms of forest that stretch out into the surrounding areas, mainly sugar cane plantations and other cropland. The forest is of a medium altitude (average 1,100m). The land slopes from southeast to northwest, and its four main rivers, the Waisoke, the Sonso, the Kamirambwa and the Siba, flow towards the northwest towards the Albertine Rift. Annual rainfall varies between about 1200 and 2200 mm (average 1600 mm). Most rain falls between March and May and between September and November with a dry season between December and February. At this time, the daytime heat can be substantial, food supply is low, and chimpanzees spend much time on the forest floor in deep shade. In general, however, temperatures are relatively even during the year varying between 19°C and 32°C. The nearest large town is Masindi, but much of the land around Budongo Forest is under cultivation with houses, villages, schools and markets (BCFS).
Table 1. Basic site information for Budongo Central Forest Reserve
| Area | 435 km² |
| Coordinates | 1.780 N, 31.572 E |
| Designation | Central Forest Reserve |
| Habitat types | Subtropical/tropical moist lowland forest, grassland, subtropical/tropical dry forest, subtropical/tropical heavily degraded former forest |
Ape status
Table 2. Ape population estimates in Budongo Central Forest Reserve
| Species | Year | Abundance estimate (95% CI) | Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI) | Encounter rate (nests/km) | Area | Method | Source | Comments | A.P.E.S. database ID |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii | 2000 | 584 (356-723) | 1.36 | Budongo Forest | Line transects (Distance) | Plumptre, Cox & Mugume 2003 | Survey effort: 513.7 km | ||
| Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii | 2009 | 1.89 | Budongo Forest | Line transects (Distance) | Babweteera et al. 2009 | Survey effort: 423.5 km |
Threats
Key threats to chimpanzees include snares set by hunters (typically targeting duiker and pigs), loss of trees around forest edge due to settlement, loss of trees inside forest due to timber extraction and charcoal production, and human-to-chimpanzee disease transmission (BCFS; Reynolds 2005). Further threats to chimpanzees come from nearby oil extraction. These include effects on chimpanzee habitat of constructing and operating infrastructure for oil and gas drilling and transportation, together with population displacement and importing of foreign labour.
Table 3. Threats to apes in Budongo Central Forest Reserve
| Category | Specific threats | Threat level | Quantified severity | Description | Year of threat |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1. Residential & commercial development | Absent | ||||
| 2. Agriculture & aquaculture | 2.1 Annual & perennial non-timber crops | Medium | The forest edge is affected. | Intermittent threat. Encroachment of forest habitat for farming and monoculture (Hobaiter & Reynolds pers. comm. 2020; Reynolds 2005). | Ongoing (2020) |
| 3. Energy production & mining | 3.1 Oil & gas drilling | High | Oil production by Total is taking place close to Budongo forest, to the north and west, along the land adjacent to Lake Albert. This work is leading to air pollution, noise pollution, upgrading of forest tracks to wide tarmacked roads for heavy traffic, increased accessibility to the forest interior for poachers, loggers, traffickers and dispossessed landless peasants, and as a result increased vulnerability of chimpanzees to human infections and interference. These threats are detailed in an Environmental Impact Assessment by Total (vol III Plants and Wildlife). A summary of the above (Reynolds 2020) is available by request from Prof. V. Reynolds (vreynolds@btopenworld.com). | Ongoing (2020) | |
| 4. Transportation & service corridors | 4.1 Roads and railroads | High | Two tracks through forest to be upgraded to roads for heavy traffic; see item 3. | Ongoing (2020) | |
| 5. Biological resource use | 5.1 Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals | High | The whole forest is affected. | Snares present in the forest (Hobaiter & Reynolds pers. comm. 2020; Reynolds 2005). | Ongoing (2020) |
| 5.3 Logging & wood harvesting | High | The whole forest is affected. | Loss of trees for charcoal burning and firewood. Illegal logging is present throughout forest, in particular outside of the immediate research areas; includes chimpanzee feeding species (Hobaiter & Reynolds pers. comm. 2020; Reynolds 2005). | Ongoing (2020) | |
| 6. Human intrusion & disturbance | High | See sections 5, 6 & 9 | Ongoing (2020) | ||
| 7. Natural system modifications | 7.3 Other ecosystem modifications | Medium | Climate change, see item 11. | Ongoing (2020) | |
| 8. Invasive & other problematic species, genes, diseases | 8.4 Problematic species/diseases of unknown origin/ 8.5 Viral/prion-induced diseases | High | The whole forest is affected. | Chimpanzees are prone to human respiratory and parasitic infections. Respiratory outbreaks that were typical are now more often lethal. Other sites in Uganda have confirmed similar respiratory pathogens of human origin (Asiimwe, Ankwasa & Mugabe 2019; Hobaiter & Reynolds pers. comm. 2020). | Ongoing (2020) |
| 9. Pollution | 9.6 Excess energy (e.g., light/noise pollution) | Medium | Noise and air pollution are beginning threats. Noise brought by illegal users (Reynolds pers. comm. 2020) | Ongoing (2020) | |
| 10. Geological Events | Absent | ||||
| 11. Climate change & severe weather | 11.1 Habitat shifting & alteration | Present, but threat severity is unknown | The whole forest is affected. | Some evidence that there is decreasing fruiting in forest trees, perhaps impacted by increase in overnight temperature lows (Eryenyu et al. 2019; Hobaiter & Reynolds pers. comm. 2020). | Ongoing (2020) |
| 12. Other options | Human population pressure | High | Increasing pressure of growing human population. Tens of thousands of displaced villagers who have lost their land are currently in camps. Road upgrades will give access to forest (Reynolds pers. comm. 2020). | Near future |
Conservation activities
Table 4. Conservation activities in Budongo Central Forest Reserve
| Category | Specific activity | Description | Year of activity |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1. Residential & commercial development | Not reported | ||
| 2. Agriculture & aquaculture | Studies on crop-raiding mitigation measures (e.g., buffer crops, resilient crops), community education, research, and liaison with agribusiness (Hobaiter & Reynolds pers. comm. 2020; Reynolds 2005). | Ongoing (2020) | |
| 3. Energy production & mining | Community awareness (Reynolds pers. comm. 2020). | Ongoing (2020) | |
| 4. Transportation & service corridors | Community awareness (Reynolds pers. comm. 2020). | Ongoing (2020) | |
| 5. Biological resource use | 5.9. Regularly de-activate/remove ground snares | Presence of snare removers and Field Assistants daily in the forest (Hobaiter & Reynolds pers. comm. 2020; Reynolds 2005). | Ongoing (2020) |
| 5.17. Provide sustainable alternative livelihoods; establish fish- or domestic meat farms | Collaboration and sensitisation work with the local community (e.g. goat farming scheme, which aims to reduce reliance on bushmeat; Hobaiter & Reynolds pers. comm. 2020; Reynolds 2005; BCFS). | Ongoing (2020) | |
| 6. Human intrusion & disturbance | Community education (Reynolds pers. comm. 2020). | Ongoing (2020) | |
| 7. Natural system modifications | Monitoring and research | Ongoing (2020) | |
| 8. Invasive & other problematic species, genes, diseases | 8.16. Treat sick/injured animals | Provide veterinary care (Hobaiter & Reynolds pers. comm. 2020). | Ongoing (2020) |
| 9. Pollution | Unable to mitigate | ||
| 10. Education & Awareness | 10.1. Educate local communities about primates and sustainable use | Community conservation clubs in local schools (Hobaiter & Reynolds pers. comm. 2020; Reynolds 2005). | Ongoing (2020) |
| 11. Habitat Protection | 11.2 Legally protect primate habitat | Liaison with NFA re-enforcement of forest protection (Reynolds pers. comm. 2020) | Ongoing (2020) |
| 12. Species Management | Not reported | ||
| 13. Livelihood; Economic & Other Incentives | 13.1. Provide monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g. REDD, employment) | Projects to support alternative income generation for local families, in particular training opportunities for women (Hobaiter & Reynolds pers. comm. 2020; Reynolds 2005). | Ongoing (2020) |
| 13.2. Provide non-monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g. better education, infrastructure development) | Direct help to communities i.e. latrine improvements, domestic animal veterinary and human health services (Hobaiter & Reynolds pers. comm. 2020; Reynolds 2005). | Ongoing (2020) |
Challenges
In addition to a lack of law enforcement, oil extraction in Lake Albert which has cut a major road through the forest and increased local population density (Hobaiter & Reynolds pers. comm. 2020).
Table 5. Challenges reported for Budongo Central Forest Reserve
| Challenge | Source |
|---|---|
| Lack of law enforcement | Hobaiter & Reynolds pers. comm. 2020 |
| No power to mitigate effects of oil infrastructure | Total Oil, Environmental Impact Assessment, Vol. III |
Research activities
Research activities have been very extensive since 1990 (see BCFS). Current work includes chimpanzee communication, cognition, tool-use, demography, social behaviour, and health. Primate and avian behavioural ecology. Work on phenology and fruiting patterns (in particular in relation to an apparent decline in fruiting). Human-wildlife interactions, and human-wildlife health monitoring. Long-term data includes chimpanzee behavioural, demographic, health, and ranging data, phenological data, illegal activities data, and meteorological data (BCFS; Reynolds 2005)
Documented behaviours
Table 6. Ape behaviors reported for Budongo Central Forest Reserve
| Behavior | Source |
|---|---|
| Not reported |
External links
Budongo Conservation Field Station
Budongo Chimps Twitter
Budongo Conservation Field Station Facebook
Relevant datasets
References
Asiimwe, C., Akankwasa, W. & Mugabe, T. (2019). Prevalence and associated risk factors for respiratory disease outbreaks in habituated chimpanzee communities under chimpanzee health monitoring in the Albertine Rift or Uganda in the past five years. Paper presented at the 2nd African Primatological Society conference. Retrieved from: https://apsuganda.africanprimatologicalsociety.org/book-of-abstracts/
Babweteera, F, Haenni, D.C., Plumptre, A.J., Richardson, J., Hughes, L. & Apel, P. (2009). Primate and large mammal survey of Budongo Forest Reserve. Unpublished report.
Budongo Conservation Field Station (BCFS). (n.d.). Retrieved from: http://www.budongo.org/
Eryenyu,D., Nyombi, H., Asiimwe, C., Businge, M., Muhanguzi, G. & Babweetera, F. (2019). Implications in change in fruiting phenology on primate foraging behavior. Paper presented at the 2nd African Primatological Society conference. Retrieved from: https://apsuganda.africanprimatologicalsociety.org/book-of-abstracts/
Plumptre A.J., Cox, D. & Mugume, S. (2003). The Status of Chimpanzees in Uganda. Albertine Rift Technical Report Series No. 2. Wildlife Conservation Society.
Reynolds, V. (2005). The chimpanzees of the Budongo Forest: Ecology, behaviour, and conservation. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
Reynolds, V. (2020). Background info for Uganda's OIL oil extraction project: ESIAs from 2018 + some more recent information (unpublished).
Page completed by: Cat Hobaiter & Vernon Reynolds Date: 25/11/2020