Fongoli Savanna Chimpanzee Project
Summary
- Western chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) are present in the Fongoli Savanna Chimpanzee Project (FSCP) area.
- As of 2019, 32 individuals occur in the site.
- The chimpanzee population trend is stable.
- This site has a total size of 90 km².
- Key threats to chimpanzees are artisanal mining, resource competition, and habitat loss.
- This community of chimpanzees has been studied since 2001 and habituated since 2005. They are the only known chimpanzee community to hunt their prey with sharpened sticks. These chimpanzees also evade the heat of their environment by soaking in free-standing water, using caves, and staying active after night fall.
Site characteristics
The Fongoli Savanna Research Project (FSCP) was established by Dr. Jill Pruetz following the identification of a strong local chimpanzee population near to the Gambia River and north of Kedougou, in the Kedougou Region of Southeastern Senegal. The research site is located outside of any formal protected area but the area designated as ‘Zone d'Intérêt Cynégétique Faleme’ (ZIC Faleme), zone within which hunting is strictly regulated. The site overlaps with several villages, and lies in relatively close proximity to the regional capital of Kedougou. The habitat can be described as a savanna-woodland mosaic, located within the vegetation Sudano-Guniean belt (Ba et al. 1997). Fongoli, like the broader region, experiences marked seasonality in climate, with rainfall concentrated to a short wet season and a lengthy dry season. Temperatures during the dry season frequently exceed 40deg C, often exceeding 45C in the months of April and May (Wessling et al. 2018). Other primates living at Fongoli are Guinea baboons (Papio papio), green monkeys (Chlorocebus aethiops), patas monkeys (Erythrocebus patas), and bushbabies (Galago senegalensis). All four sympatric primates are consumed by the chimpanzee research community. In addition to these primates, warthog (Phacochoerus africanus), banded mongoose (Mungos mungo), bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus), porcupine (Hystrix cristata), hyena (Crocuta crocuta), leopards (Panthera pardus), and honey badgers (Mellivora capensis) can be found at the site (Lindshield et al. 2019).
Table 1. Basic site information for Fongoli Savanna Chimpanzee Project
| Area | 90 km² (Pruetz 2018) |
| Coordinates | 12.65, -12.20 |
| Designation | Zone d'Intérêt Cynégétique (zone within which hunting is strictly regulated) |
| Habitat types | Subtropical/Tropical Dry Forest, Dry Savanna, Arable Land |
Ape status
The Fongoli chimpanzees have been under research since initial surveying in 2001 (Pruetz et al. 2001), and males have been fully-habituated to researcher presence since 2005. The chimpanzee community ranges in size between 28 and 36 individuals. Density estimates for the site have also been formally conducted in 2013 (0.29 indiv./km²), although they underestimated true chimpanzee densities at the time (0.35 indiv / km²; Wessling et al. in review).
Table 2. Great ape population estimates in Fongoli Savanna Chimpanzee Project
| Species | Year | Abundance estimate (95% CI) | Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI) | Encounter rate (nests/km) | Area | Method | Source | Comments | A.P.E.S. database ID |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pan troglodytes verus | 2000 | 0.09 | 49 | Fongoli | Strip sampling, index sampling | Pruetz et al. 2002 | *note, not traditional line transect estimation , identified as Tomboronkoto in the article. Transects targeted likely chimpanzee locations. Encounter rate 285 nests/5.8 km | ||
| Pan troglodytes verus | 2005 - 2016 | 32 (28-36) | 90km² | Full count | Pruetz 2018 | Based on data collected on identified individuals | |||
| Pan troglodytes verus | 2014 | 0.29 | 20km² | Line transects (Distance) | Wessling et al. in review | Total survey effort: 20km² |
Threats
Saba senegalensis is an important food resource for the Fongoli chimpanzees while likewise consistently extracted for sale in local and national markets (Waller and Pruetz 2014). In the last decade Fongoli has become a target of timber extraction, likely due to its proximity to the regional capital and ease of access. Transient pastoral communities pass through Fongoli and cut branches from an assortment of tree species to be used as fodder for their livestock. The Kedougou Region, in which Fongoli is located, has experienced a mining boom since the early 2010s, and temporary to semi-permanent mining camps have been established within the research area, with demonstrated effects on the home range use of the research community (Boyer-Ontl 2017). Poaching is not a consistent threat at the site, however in 2009 a poacher obtained an infant of the research community, which was later returned to the group by researchers (Pruetz and Kante 2010).
Table 3. Threats to great apes in Fongoli Savanna Chimpanzee Project
| Category | Specific threats | Threat level | Quantified severity | Description | Year of threat |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1. Residential & commercial development | Absent | ||||
| 2. Agriculture & aquaculture | 2.1 Annual & perennial non-timber crops | Medium | Bogart and Pruetz 2012, Pruetz 2006, Pruetz and Bertolani 2009 | Ongoing (2009) | |
| 2.3 Livestock farming & ranching | Medium | Nomadic grazing (Wessling pers. obs.) | Ongoing (2019) | ||
| 3. Energy production & mining | 3.2 Mining & quarrying | High | Artisanal Gold Mining: Boyer-Ontl 2017; Lindshield et al. 2019 | Ongoing (2019) | |
| 4. Transportation & service corridors | Absent | ||||
| 5. Biological resource use | 5.1 Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals | Low | Pruetz and Kante 2010 | Ongoing (2010) | |
| 5.2 Gathering terrestrial plants | Medium | Saba Extraction: Waller and Pruetz 2016 | Ongoing (2016) | ||
| 5.3 Logging & wood harvesting | Present | Wood harvesting: Boyer-Ontl 2017 | Ongoing (2017) | ||
| 6. Human intrusions & disturbance | Absent | ||||
| 7. Natural system modifications | 7.1 Fire & fire suppression | High | Pruetz and Herzog 2017; Pruetz and LaDuke 2010 | Ongoing (2017) | |
| 8. Invasive & other problematic species, genes, diseases | Absent | ||||
| 9. Pollution | 9.2 Industrial & military effluents | Medium | Seepage from mining, known mercury pollution in the immediate region (Gerson et al. 2018) | Ongoing (2018) | |
| 10. Geological Events | Absent | ||||
| 11. Climate change & severe weather | 11.3 Temperature extremes | High | Naturally high temperature extremes: Pruetz and Bertolani 2009; Wessling et al. 2018 | Ongoing (2018) | |
| 12. Other options | Absent |
Conservation activities
Since the inception of the research project, a permanent research presence has existed at the Fongoli site since 2001. Local personnel are employed with the project, and sensibilization programmes began at Fongoli and in the region to educate local populations about chimpanzees. Researchers take care to prevent communicable diseases to the apes, including strict minimum distance guidelines, wearing face masks, and requirement of vaccinations and good health to access the site. Neighbor Ape, a non-profit for the conservation of chimpanzees in Senegal, was established by Fongoli Director Dr. Jill Pruetz, and conducts frequent assistance programs to local communities of the immediate and broader Fongoli region. Details on smaller projects are listed here.
Table 4. Conservation activities in Fongoli Savanna Chimpanzee Project
| Category | Specific activity | Description | Year of activity |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1. Residential & commercial development | Absent | ||
| 2. Agriculture & aquaculture | Absent | ||
| 3. Energy production & mining | Absent | ||
| 4. Transportation & service corridors | Absent | ||
| 5. Biological resource use | Absent | ||
| 6. Human intrusions & disturbance | Absent | ||
| 7. Natural system modifications | Absent | ||
| 8. Invasive & other problematic species, genes, diseases | 8.7. Wear face-masks to avoid transmission of viral and bacterial diseases to primates | Researchers must wear face masks while in the presence of chimpanzees (Pruetz and Kante 2010) | Since 2012 |
| 8.8. Keep safety distance to habituated animals | Minimum 10m distance between researchers and chimpanzees | Since 2001 | |
| 8.12. Ensure that researchers/tourists are up-to-date with vaccinations and healthy | Integral to research program | Since 2001 | |
| 8.16. Treat sick/injured animals | A confiscated 9-months old female was treated for its injured eye before being released back to its natal group (Pruetz and Kante 2010) | 2010 | |
| 9. Pollution | 9.2. Remove human food waste that may potentially serve as food sources for primates to avoid disease transmission and conflict with humans | Researchers do not leave food waste during research day | Since 2001 |
| 10. Education & Awareness | 10.2. Involve local community in primate research and conservation management | People hired for research and conservation with the FSCP | Ongoing (2019) |
| 10.5. Implement multimedia campaigns using theatre, film, print media, discussions | Sensibilisation programme for several locations throughout Senegal, incl. Fongoli | 2010 (USAID funding) | |
| 11. Habitat Protection | Absent | ||
| 12. Species Management | 12.1. Habituate primates to human presence to reduce stress from tourists/researchers etc. | Chimpanzees were habituated for research | Completed 2001-2005 |
| 12.16. Reintroduce primates as single/multiple individuals | A confiscated 9-months old female was released close to its natal group and the group retrieved it immediately (Pruetz and Kante 2010) | 2010 | |
| 12.18. Reintroduce primates into habitat where the species is present | A confiscated 9-months old female was released close to its natal group and the group retrieved it immediately (Pruetz and Kante 2010) | 2010 | |
| 13. Livelihood; Economic & Other Incentives | 13.1. Provide monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g. REDD, employment) | People hired for research and conservation with the FSCP | Since 2001 |
| 13.3. Run research project and ensure permanent human presence at site | Fongoli Savanna Research Project | Since 2001 |
Challenges
Table 5. Challenges reported for Fongoli Savanna Chimpanzee Project
| Challenge | Source |
|---|---|
| Not reported |
Research activities
The Fongoli chimpanzees have been under study since 2001 and were fully habituated by 2005. A permanent research presence has existed at the site since the start of the project. A wide range of topics have been studied at the Fongoli site, including aspects related to behavior, culture, feeding ecology, physiology, isotopes, parasite loading, enthoprimatology, and sociality, among many others.
Documented behaviours
Table 6. Great ape behaviors reported for Fongoli Savanna Chimpanzee Project
| Behavior | Source |
|---|---|
| Ant dipping | Pruetz and Bertolani 2009 |
| Ant eating | Pruetz and Bertolani 2009 |
| Cave use | Pruetz 2007 |
| Lethal intragroup aggression | Pruetz et al. 2017 |
| Making ground nests | Pruetz et al. 2008 |
| Nighttime activity | Pruetz 2018 |
| Pool use | Pruetz and Bertolani 2009 |
| Termite fishing | McGrew et al. 2005; Bogart and Pruetz 2008, 2012 |
| Tool assisted hunting | Pruetz and Bertolani 2007; Pruetz et al. 2015 |
References
Bogart, S. L., & Pruetz, J. D. (2008). Ecological context of savanna chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes verus) termite fishing at Fongoli, Senegal. American Journal of Primatology: Official Journal of the American Society of Primatologists, 70(6), 605-612. v
Bogart, S. L., & Pruetz, J. D. (2011). Insectivory of savanna chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) at Fongoli, Senegal. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 145(1), 11-20.
Lindshield, S., Bogart, S. L., Gueye, M., Ndiaye, P. I., & Pruetz, J. D. (2019). Informing Protection Efforts for Critically Endangered Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) and Sympatric Mammals amidst Rapid Growth of Extractive Industries in Senegal. Folia Primatologica, 90(2), 124-136.
McGrew, W. C., Pruetz, J. D., & Fulton, S. J. (2005). Chimpanzees use tools to harvest social insects at Fongoli, Senegal. Folia Primatologica, 76(4), 222-226.
Ontl, K. M. B. (2017). Chimpanzees in the Island Of Gold: Impacts of artisanal small-scale gold mining on chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) in Fongoli, Senegal.
Pruetz, J. D. (2006). Feeding ecology of savanna chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) at Fongoli, Senegal. Feeding ecology in apes and other primates, 326-364.
Pruetz, J. D. (2007). Evidence of cave use by savanna chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) at Fongoli, Senegal: implications for thermoregulatory behavior. Primates, 48(4), 316-319.
Pruetz, J. D. (2018). Nocturnal behavior by a diurnal ape, the West African chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes verus), in a savanna environment at Fongoli, Senegal. American journal of physical anthropology, 166(3), 541-548.
Pruetz, J. D., & Bertolani, P. (2007). Savanna chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes verus, hunt with tools. Current biology, 17(5), 412-417.
Pruetz, J. D., & Bertolani, P. (2009). Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes verus) behavioral responses to stresses associated with living in a savanna-mosaic environment: implications for hominin adaptations to open habitats. PaleoAnthropology, 252.
Pruetz, J. D., & Herzog, N. M. (2017). Savanna chimpanzees at Fongoli, Senegal, navigate a fire landscape. Current Anthropology, 58(S16), S337-S350.
Pruetz, J. D., & Kante, D. (2010). Successful return of a wild infant chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes verus) to its natal group after capture by poachers. African Primates, 7(1), 35.
Pruetz, J. D., & LaDuke, T. C. (2010). Brief communication: Reaction to fire by savanna chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) at Fongoli, Senegal: Conceptualization of" fire behavior" and the case for a chimpanzee model. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 141(4), 646-650.
Pruetz, J. D., Bertolani, P., Ontl, K. B., Lindshield, S., Shelley, M., & Wessling, E. G. (2015). New evidence on the tool-assisted hunting exhibited by chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) in a savannah habitat at Fongoli, Sénégal. Royal Society Open Science, 2(4), 140507.
Pruetz, J. D., Fulton, S. J., Marchant, L. F., McGrew, W. C., Schiel, M., & Waller, M. (2008). Arboreal nesting as anti-predator adaptation by savanna chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) in southeastern Senegal. American Journal of Primatology: Official Journal of the American Society of Primatologists, 70(4), 393-401.
Pruetz, J. D., Marchant, L. F., Arno, J., & McGrew, W. C. (2002). Survey of savanna chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) in southeastern Senegal. American Journal of Primatology: Official Journal of the American Society of Primatologists, 58(1), 35-43.
Waller, M. T., & Pruetz, J. (2016). Competition between chimpanzees and humans: the effects of harvesting non-timber forest products. In Ethnoprimatology (pp. 157-177). Springer, Cham.
Wessling, E. G., Kühl, H. S., Mundry, R., Deschner, T., & Pruetz, J. D. (2018). The costs of living at the edge: Seasonal stress in wild savanna-dwelling chimpanzees. Journal of human evolution, 121, 1-11.
Wessling, E.G., Eshuis, H., Llana, M., Pacheco, L., Pruetz, J.D., & H.S. Kühl. (In Review). Ecological and climatic gradients correlate with decreasing savanna chimpanzee (Pan trodglodytes verus) densities at the range limit. Int J Primatol.
Page completed by: A.P.E.S. Wiki Team Date: 20/11/2019