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Budongo-Bugoma corridor (view source)
Revision as of 09:06, 29 December 2020
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[[East Africa]] > [[Uganda]] > [[Budongo-Bugoma corridor]]
= Summary = <!-- An overview of the site, with one sentence for each section. May include a site map →
[[File: Landscape in the Budongo-Bugoma region (photo by Jack Lester)_2.JPG | 300px | thumb| right | Landscape in the Budongo-Bugoma region © Jack Lester]]
* Eastern chimpanzees (''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii'') are present in Budongo-Bugoma corridor.
* It has been estimated that 256 (246-321) individuals occur in the site.
* The chimpanzee population trend is decreasing.
* The total area of the site is >1000 km².
* Chimpanzees are mainly threatened by habitat loss as a result of agricultural expansion.
* Conservation activities have focused on improving livelihoods of local people and conserving and enriching remaining natural forest. Other threats include human-chimpanzee conflict, construction of roads, and diseases.
* The site links the chimpanzee populations of [[Bugoma Central Forest Reserve]] and [[Budongo Central Forest Reserve]]
= Site characteristics = <!-- A paragraph summary of physical and geographic aspects of the site, and a table of key information -->
[[File: Chimpanzee communities in the Budongo-Bugoma Corridor (modified from McCarthy et al., 2018)_2.jpg | 400px | thumb| right | Chimpanzee communities in the Budongo-Bugoma Corridor (modified from McCarthy et al., 2018)]]
Located in the Western Region of Uganda, the 'Budongo-Bugoma corridor' refers to a landscape that links chimpanzee populations in two large protected areas, Budongo and Bugoma Central Forest Reserves, which are separated by 50 km. The intervening 'corridor' is dominated by household and commercial agriculture and agroforestry plantations, villages and urbanizing areas. Most natural forest in the corridor was converted to farmland and other land uses since the 1990s (McLennan 2008; Twongyirwe et al. 2015). However, small fragments of degraded riparian forest remain along watercourses and around Papyrus swamps. These remnant forest patches offer some cover for the region's chimpanzees, which range within a landscape dominated by farmland, villages, plantations and the outskirts of urban areas (McLennan 2008; McCarthy et al. 2017; McLennan et al. 2021). The Budongo–Bugoma corridor was recognized as an important ‘Chimpanzee Conservation Unit’ in the 2010–2020 IUCN conservation action plan for eastern chimpanzees (Plumptre et al. 2010).
'''Table 1. Basic site information for Budongo-Bugoma corridor'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="basic-information"
| Area <!-- Please include units: km2/ha e.g 200ha -->
|>1000 km²
|-
|Coordinates
|
|-
|Designation
|Unclassified
|-
|Habitat types <!-- List IUCN Habitat Classification 3.0 categories present (without number), see link below -->
|Riparian forest, subtropical/tropical dry grassland, subtropical/tropical swamp forest, rural gardens, plantations, arable land, village and urban areas, subtropical/tropical heavily degraded former forest
|}
[https://www.iucnredlist.org/resources/habitat-classification-scheme IUCN habitat categories] [[Site designations]]
= Ape status = <!--An overview of ape population status (population sizes, trends, etc.), followed by a table of specific surveys and results -->
[[File: Budongo-Bugoma Corridor Region Forest Cover (modified from McCarthy et al., 2015)_2.jpg | 400px | thumb| right | Budongo-Bugoma Corridor Region Forest Cover (modified from McCarthy et al., 2015)]]
Despite its name, the Budongo-Bugoma corridor is not a migratory corridor for chimpanzees travelling between the Budongo and Bugoma Forests. A regional survey by McLennan (2008) showed that chimpanzees were resident and widely distributed throughout the corridor landscape. Based on an extrapolation of chimpanzee density for one resident community within the corridor, Bulindi, McLennan estimated a total regional population of 260 individuals. A genetic mark-recapture study conducted in 2012-2013 confirmed this approximate population size distributed broadly throughout a network of mostly unprotected forest fragments between the Budongo and Bugoma Forests (McCarthy et al., 2015). The population comprises nine or more resident chimpanzee communities (McCarthy et al. 2015, 2018). More recent work in this region has indicated declines in some of the community-specific abundance estimates reported by McCarthy and colleagues (BCCP, unpublished data).
'''Table 2. Ape population estimates in Budongo-Bugoma corridor'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="population-estimate-table"
! Species
! Year
! Abundance estimate (95% CI)
! Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI)
! Encounter rate (nests/km)
! Area
! Method
! Source
! Comments
! A.P.E.S. database ID
|-
|''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii''
|2013
|256 (246-321)
|0.4 (0.34-0.47)
|
|633 sq. km Budongo-Bugoma corridor
|Genetic capture-with-replacement
|McCarthy et al. 2015
|
|
|}
= Threats = <!-- a text overview of threats, followed by a table of key threats -->
Chimpanzees in the Budongo-Bugoma Corridor region are threatened principally by habitat loss, as remaining areas of riparian forest are logged for timber and converted for small-scale and commercial agriculture. In addition to commercially produced crops such as tobacco, rice and sugarcane (McLennan & Hill 2015), exotic timber is also widely grown, including species such as eucalyptus and Caribbean pine. Growing infrastructure, including the construction of paved roads for oil extraction, has increased the risks for chimpanzees, and chimpanzees have been killed regionally by vehicle traffic (McLennan & Asiimwe 2016; McLennan et al. 2021). Human-wildlife conflict presents another major threat to chimpanzee survival (McLennan & Hill 2012), and chimpanzees have been killed by illegal mantraps set in order to discourage crop feeding (McLennan et al., 2012; Cibot et al., 2019). Disease risk also threatens chimpanzees; this risk includes respiratory diseases as well as gastrointestinal parasites (McLennan et al., 2017; 2018).
'''Table 3. Threats to apes in Budongo-Bugoma corridor'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="threats-table"
!align="left"|Category <!-- PLEASE DO NOT CHANGE THE THREAT CATEGORIES -->
!Specific threats <!-- For specific threats, please use list of comma separated keywords from the IUCN list linked below -->
!Threat level <!-- For threat level, please use keywords: low, medium, high, present, absent, unknown-->
!Quantified severity <!-- Enter any available quantification of the threat, e.g., the proportion of the area affected by the threat, hunting sign encounter rates-->
!Description <!-- Add descriptive information -->
!Year of threat <!-- Enter specific year(s), “ongoing”, or “unknown”. If the threat is ongoing, please add the year of reference in parentheses -->
|-
|1. Residential & commercial development
|
|Absent
|
|
|
|-
|2. Agriculture & aquaculture
|2.1 Annual & perennial non-timber crops
|High
|
|Habitat loss due to agricultural expansion for commercial and subsistence farming, leading to increased human-chimpanzee conflict (McLennan et al. 2012; McLennan & Hill 2015; Oxley 2019).
|v
|-
|2. Agriculture & aquaculture
|2.2 Wood & pulp plantations
|High
|
|Habitat loss due to expansion of exotic timber plantations (McLennan et al. 2021).
|Ongoing (2020)
|-
|3. Energy production & mining
|3.1 Oil & gas drilling
|High
|
|Pipeline being built in the area, leading to development of infrastructure and associated mounting anthropogenic pressures on chimpanzees (McLennan et al. 2021).
|Ongoing (2020)
|-
|4. Transportation & service corridors
|4.1 Roads & railroads
|High
|At least two chimpanzees are known to have been killed in collisions with vehicles while crossing roads (McLennan & Asiimwe 2016; McLennan et al. 2021).
|Risk of vehicle collision as chimpanzees frequently have to cross roads; further development of roads in connection to the construction of the oil pipeline (McLennan et al. 2021).
|Ongoing (2020)
|-
|5. Biological resource use
|
|Absent
|
|
|
|-
|6. Human intrusion & disturbance
|
|Absent
|
|
|
|-
|7. Natural system modifications
|7.3 Other ecosystem modifications
|High
|
|Reduced options for female dispersal caused by clearance of riparian forest corridors (McCarthy et al. 2018).
|Ongoing (2020)
|-
|8. Invasive & other problematic species, genes, diseases
|
|High
|
|Chimpanzees throughout the region have daily contact with humans and domestic animals, and are at risk from respiratory diseases and gastrointestinal parasites (McLennan et al., 2017; 2018).
|Ongoing (2020)
|-
|9. Pollution
|
|Absent
|
|
|
|-
|10. Geological Events
|
|Absent
|
|
|
|-
| 11. Climate change & severe weather
|
|Unknown
|
|
|
|-
|12. Other options
|12.1 Other threat
|High
|19% of individuals of one community in the corridor ('Mairirwe community') exhibit limb deformities consistent with injuries caused by wire snares or steel traps (BCCP, unpublished data).
|Snare and trap injuries can result in lethal injuries. Traps are sometimes placed by farmers around agricultural gardens to reduce crop losses (McLennan 2008; McLennan et al. 2012; Cibot et al., 2019).
|Ongoing (2020)
|-
|}
[https://www.iucnredlist.org/resources/threat-classification-scheme IUCN Threats list]
= Conservation activities = <!-- A summary of the conservation activities, followed by a table of key activities -->
The Bulindi Chimpanzee & Community Project (https://bulindichimpanzees.weebly.com/) was established in 2015 with the main goal of halting ongoing deforestation to protect resident chimpanzees. BCCP links chimpanzee conservation to improving livelihoods of local people and conserving and enriching remaining natural forest. In 2020, BCCP has distributed 1.4 million tree seedlings in more than 150 local villages distributed throughout the corridor. The project also partners with water nonprofits to create village boreholes, provides fuel-efficient stoves, supports women’s health and livelihoods, and contributes to school fees for youth in forest-owning families that preserve their forests (BCCP 2020). Other non-government organizations also working to conserve chimpanzees in the Budongo-Bugoma corridor include the Jane Goodall Institute-Uganda and Chimpanzee Trust.
'''Table 4. Conservation activities in Budongo-Bugoma corridor'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="conservation-actions-table"
!align="left"|Category <!-- PLEASE DO NOT CHANGE THE CATEGORIES -->
!Specific activity <!-- For specific threats, please use list from the list linked below, OR enter “Not reported” -->
!Description <!-- Add descriptive information -->
!Year of activity <!-- Add descriptive information -->
|-
|1. Residential & commercial development
|Not reported
|
|
|-
|2. Agriculture & aquaculture
|Not reported
|
|
|-
|3. Energy production & mining
|Not reported
|
|
|-
|4. Transportation & service corridors
|Not reported
|
|
|-
|5. Biological resource use
|5.17. Provide sustainable alternative livelihoods; establish fish- or domestic meat farms
|BCCP has an extensive tree planting program in the Budongo-Bugoma corridor, including raising indigenous tree species for habitat enrichment, coffee as an alternative livelihood for farmers, and fast-growing timber species for household woodlots. The woodlots provide local households with an alternative source of wood and alternative income from timber sales, reducing reliance on remaining natural forest (BCCP 2020).
|Ongoing (2020)
|-
|6. Human intrusion & disturbance
|Not reported
|
|
|-
|7. Natural system modifications
|Not reported
|
|
|-
|8. Invasive & other problematic species, genes, diseases
|Not reported
|
|
|-
|9. Pollution
|Not reported
|
|
|-
|10. Education & Awareness
|Not reported
|
|
|-
|11. Habitat Protection
|Not reported
|
|
|-
|12. Species Management
|Not reported
|
|
|-
|13. Livelihood; Economic & Other Incentives
|13.1. Provide monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g. REDD, employment)
|BCCP supports a women's business savings programme to boost family incomes via environmentally-friendly household projects (BCCP 2020).
|Ongoing (2020)
|-
|13. Livelihood; Economic & Other Incentives
|13.2. Provide non-monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g. better education, infrastructure development)
|BCCP installs village boreholes, builds energy stoves, and supports schoolchildren from forest-owning families (BCCP 2020).
|Ongoing (2020)
|-
|}
[[Conservation activities list (Junker et al. 2017)]]
= Challenges = <!-- Overview of challenges in ape conservation -->
Ongoing habitat conversion (clearance of riparian forest and wetlands for agriculture) for commercial and subsistence agriculture, leading to high levels of 'conflict' between chimpanzees and farmers (McLennan 2008; McLennan & Hill 2015). Feeding on agricultural crops is habitual behavior by chimpanzee communities throughout the Budongo-Bugoma corridor, leading to growing intolerance towards chimpanzees (McLennan & Hill 2012) and occasional trappings and retaliatory killings (McLennan et al. 2012; BCCP, unpublished data). Infrastructural development (e.g. road upgrades, urbanisation) is driving rapid changes to the chimpanzee habitat (McLennan et al. 2021).
'''Table 5. Challenges reported for Budongo-Bugoma corridor'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="challenges-table"
!align="left"|Challenge <!-- Do not change categories -->
!Source <!-- Source for challenge mentioned -->
|-
|Lack of financial means
|McLennan, pers. comm.
|-
|Lack of law enforcement
|McLennan 2008
|-
|Lack of national protection
|McLennan 2008
|-
|}
= Research activities = <!-- Overview of research activities -->
Several resident chimpanzee communities within the Budongo-Bugoma corridor are subjects of ongoing research and monitoring (BCCP 2020), including the long-term Bulindi study community (e.g. McLennan et al. 2019b). Other communities under study include the Kasokwa-Kityedo (Reynolds et al. 2003), Kasongoire (Oxley 2019), Wagaisa (McCarthy et al. 2017; McLennan et al. 2021) and Mairirwe (McLennan et al. 2019a) communities. Locations of these communities are shown in McCarthy et al. (2015, 2018).
<div><ul>
<li style="display: inline-block;">[[File: Chimpanzee nests in exotic eucalyptus trees (Photo by Matthew McLennan) (1)_2.JPG | 300px | thumb| right | Chimpanzee nests in exotic eucalyptus trees (Photo by Matthew McLennan)]]
<li style="display: inline-block;"> [[File: Male chimpanzee in a pine tree in the Wagaisa area (photo by Jack Lester)_2.JPG | 300px | thumb| right | Male chimpanzee in a pine tree in the Wagaisa area (photo by Jack Lester)]]
<li style="display: inline-block;"> [[File: Male chimpanzees eating commercially farmed sugarcane, Wagaisa area (Photo by Bulindi Chimpanzee & Community Project) (1)_2.JPG | 300px | thumb| right |Male chimpanzees eating commercially farmed sugarcane, Wagaisa area (Photo by Bulindi Chimpanzee & Community Project)]]
</ul></div>
===Documented behaviours=== <!-- List of any behaviours observed at the site, including citations -->
'''Table 6. Ape behaviors reported for Budongo-Bugoma corridor'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="behaviors-table"
!align="left"|Behavior
!Source
|-
|Eucalyptus bark eating
|McCarthy et al. 2017; McLennan et al. 2021
|-
|Nesting in introduced tree species (eucalyptus, cocoa, guava, Caribbean pine)
|McCarthy et al. 2017; McLennan et al. 2021
|-
|Making ground nests
|McCarthy et al. 2017
|-
|Crop feeding
|Reynolds et al. 2003; McLennan 2008; Oxley 2019; McLennan et al. 2021
|-
|Road crossing
|McLennan et al. 2021
|-
|Honey digging with stick tools
|McLennan et al. 2019a, 2019b
|-
|Food sharing (agricultural crops)
|BCCP, unpublished data
|-
|}
=External links=
[https://bulindichimpanzees.weebly.com/ Bulindi Chimpanzee & Community Project website]<br>
[https://www.facebook.com/bulindichimpanzees/ Bulindi Chimpanzees Facebook]<br>
[https://www.instagram.com/bulindichimps/ Bulindi Chimpanzees Instagram]<br>
[https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/2019/11/chimps-and-people-are-clashing-in-rural-uganda-feature/ Bulindi National Geographic]<br>
===Relevant datasets===
[http://apesportal.eva.mpg.de/database/archiveMap A.P.E.S Portal]
= References =
BCCP. (2020). 2019 Annual Report to Friends & Funders. Bulindi Chimpanzee and Community Project, Hoima, Uganda. <br>
Cibot, M., Le Roux, S., Rohen, J., & McLennan, M.R. (2019). Death of a trapped chimpanzee: survival and conservation of great apes in unprotected agricultural areas of Uganda. African Primates 13, 47-56. <br>
McCarthy, M. S., Lester, J. D., Howe, E. J., Arandjelovic, M., Stanford, C. B., & Vigilant, L. (2015). Genetic censusing identifies an unexpectedly sizeable population of an endangered large mammal in a fragmented forest landscape. BMC Ecology, 15(1), 21. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12898-015-0052-x <br>
McCarthy, M. S., Lester, J. D., & Stanford, C. B. (2017). Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) flexibly use introduced species for nesting and bark feeding in a human-dominated habitat. International Journal of Primatology, 38(2), 321-337. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10764-016-9916-y <br>
McCarthy, M. S., Lester, J. D., Langergraber, K. E., Stanford, C. B., & Vigilant, L. (2018). Genetic analysis suggests dispersal among chimpanzees in a fragmented forest landscape in Uganda. American Journal of Primatology, 80(9), e22902. <br>
McLennan, M.R. (2008). Beleaguered chimpanzees in the agricultural district of Hoima, Western Uganda. Primate Conservation 23, 45–54. <br>
McLennan, M.R. & Asiimwe, C. (2016). Cars kill chimpanzees: case report of a wild chimpanzee killed on a road at Bulindi, Uganda. Primates 57, 377-388. <br>
McLennan, M.R., Hasegawa, H., Bardi, M., & Huffman, M.A. (2017). Gastrointestinal parasite infections and self-medication in wild chimpanzees surviving in degraded forest fragments within an agricultural landscape mosaic in Uganda. PLoS ONE 12, e0180431. <br>
McLennan, M.R. & Hill, C.M. (2012). Troublesome neighbours: changing attitudes towards chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) in a human-dominated landscape in Uganda. Journal for Nature Conservation 20, 219-227. <br>
McLennan, M.R. & Hill, C.M. (2015). Changing agricultural practices and human-chimpanzee interactions: tobacco and sugarcane farming in and around Bulindi, Uganda. In: Arcus Foundation, ed. State of the Apes Volume II: Industrial Agriculture and Ape Conservation. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. <br>
McLennan, M. R., Hintz, B., Kiiza, V., Rohen, J., Lorenti, G. A., & Hockings, K. J. (2021). Surviving at the extreme: chimpanzee ranging is not restricted in a deforested human‐dominated landscape in Uganda. African Journal of Ecology, https://doi.org/10.1111/aje.12803 <br>
McLennan, M. R., Hyeroba, D., Asiimwe, C., Reynolds, V., & Wallis, J. (2012). Chimpanzees in mantraps: lethal crop protection and conservation in Uganda. Oryx, 46(4), 598-603. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605312000592 <br>
McLennan, M.R., Lorenti, G.A., Mugenyi, S., Muganzi, J., & Rohen, J. (2019a). Digging for clues: stick tools used for honey digging in a second community of ‘forest fragment chimpanzees’ outside the Budongo and Bugoma Forests, Uganda. Revue de Primatologie, 10, https://doi.org/10.4000/primatologie.6718 <br>
McLennan, M.R., Mori, H., Mahittikorn, A., Prasertbun, R., Hagiwara, K., & Huffman, M.A. (2018). Zoonotic enterobacterial pathogens detected in wild chimpanzees. Ecohealth 15, 143-147. <br>
McLennan, M.R., Rohen, J., Satsias, Z., Sabiiti, T., Baruzaliire, J.-M., & Cibot, M. (2019b). ‘Customary’ use of stick tools by chimpanzees in Bulindi, Uganda: update and analysis of digging techniques from behavioural observations. Revue de Primatologie, 10, https://doi.org/10.4000/primatologie.6706 <br>
Oxley, A. S. (2019). Great ape conservation in the matrix: Investigating the socio-ecological responses of chimpanzees living in a forest–farm mosaic, Uganda. Oxford Brookes University, UK (unpublished doctoral dissertation) <br>
Plumptre, A.J. et al. (2010). Eastern Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii): Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan, 2010-2020. IUCN, Switzerland. <br>
Reynolds, V., Wallis, J., & Kyamanywa, R. (2003). Fragments, sugar, and chimpanzees in Masindi District, western Uganda. In L. K. Marsh (Ed.), Primates in fragments: Ecology and conservation (pp. 309–320). USA: Springer. <br>
Twongyirwe, R., Bithell, M., Richards, K. S., & Rees, W. G. (2015). Three decades of forest cover change in Uganda’s Northern Albertine Rift Landscape. Land Use Policy, 49, 236-251. <br>
<br>
'''Page completed by: '''Matthew McLennan, Maureen McCarthy & Jack Lester''' Date:''' 23/12/2020 <!-- If you don't want to add your name, you can add "A.P.E.S. Wiki team" -->
- Wiki pages contain information in paragraphs, tables, lists, and images.
- Text and images are not restricted, and their formats can be chosen as desired.
- Tables and lists are extracted as data, so the following restrictions apply to them:
1) Table structure cannot be changed.
2) List format should not change, i.e. they are comma separated lists, not bullet points or numbered lists.
3) To make information comparable across wiki pages, keywords must be taken from the list of permitted words, or added to the list of permitted keywords. This is why we use official lists, e.g., IUCN classification lists, in our tables.
-->
[[East Africa]] > [[Uganda]] > [[Budongo-Bugoma corridor]]
= Summary = <!-- An overview of the site, with one sentence for each section. May include a site map →
[[File: Landscape in the Budongo-Bugoma region (photo by Jack Lester)_2.JPG | 300px | thumb| right | Landscape in the Budongo-Bugoma region © Jack Lester]]
* Eastern chimpanzees (''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii'') are present in Budongo-Bugoma corridor.
* It has been estimated that 256 (246-321) individuals occur in the site.
* The chimpanzee population trend is decreasing.
* The total area of the site is >1000 km².
* Chimpanzees are mainly threatened by habitat loss as a result of agricultural expansion.
* Conservation activities have focused on improving livelihoods of local people and conserving and enriching remaining natural forest. Other threats include human-chimpanzee conflict, construction of roads, and diseases.
* The site links the chimpanzee populations of [[Bugoma Central Forest Reserve]] and [[Budongo Central Forest Reserve]]
= Site characteristics = <!-- A paragraph summary of physical and geographic aspects of the site, and a table of key information -->
[[File: Chimpanzee communities in the Budongo-Bugoma Corridor (modified from McCarthy et al., 2018)_2.jpg | 400px | thumb| right | Chimpanzee communities in the Budongo-Bugoma Corridor (modified from McCarthy et al., 2018)]]
Located in the Western Region of Uganda, the 'Budongo-Bugoma corridor' refers to a landscape that links chimpanzee populations in two large protected areas, Budongo and Bugoma Central Forest Reserves, which are separated by 50 km. The intervening 'corridor' is dominated by household and commercial agriculture and agroforestry plantations, villages and urbanizing areas. Most natural forest in the corridor was converted to farmland and other land uses since the 1990s (McLennan 2008; Twongyirwe et al. 2015). However, small fragments of degraded riparian forest remain along watercourses and around Papyrus swamps. These remnant forest patches offer some cover for the region's chimpanzees, which range within a landscape dominated by farmland, villages, plantations and the outskirts of urban areas (McLennan 2008; McCarthy et al. 2017; McLennan et al. 2021). The Budongo–Bugoma corridor was recognized as an important ‘Chimpanzee Conservation Unit’ in the 2010–2020 IUCN conservation action plan for eastern chimpanzees (Plumptre et al. 2010).
'''Table 1. Basic site information for Budongo-Bugoma corridor'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="basic-information"
| Area <!-- Please include units: km2/ha e.g 200ha -->
|>1000 km²
|-
|Coordinates
|
|-
|Designation
|Unclassified
|-
|Habitat types <!-- List IUCN Habitat Classification 3.0 categories present (without number), see link below -->
|Riparian forest, subtropical/tropical dry grassland, subtropical/tropical swamp forest, rural gardens, plantations, arable land, village and urban areas, subtropical/tropical heavily degraded former forest
|}
[https://www.iucnredlist.org/resources/habitat-classification-scheme IUCN habitat categories] [[Site designations]]
= Ape status = <!--An overview of ape population status (population sizes, trends, etc.), followed by a table of specific surveys and results -->
[[File: Budongo-Bugoma Corridor Region Forest Cover (modified from McCarthy et al., 2015)_2.jpg | 400px | thumb| right | Budongo-Bugoma Corridor Region Forest Cover (modified from McCarthy et al., 2015)]]
Despite its name, the Budongo-Bugoma corridor is not a migratory corridor for chimpanzees travelling between the Budongo and Bugoma Forests. A regional survey by McLennan (2008) showed that chimpanzees were resident and widely distributed throughout the corridor landscape. Based on an extrapolation of chimpanzee density for one resident community within the corridor, Bulindi, McLennan estimated a total regional population of 260 individuals. A genetic mark-recapture study conducted in 2012-2013 confirmed this approximate population size distributed broadly throughout a network of mostly unprotected forest fragments between the Budongo and Bugoma Forests (McCarthy et al., 2015). The population comprises nine or more resident chimpanzee communities (McCarthy et al. 2015, 2018). More recent work in this region has indicated declines in some of the community-specific abundance estimates reported by McCarthy and colleagues (BCCP, unpublished data).
'''Table 2. Ape population estimates in Budongo-Bugoma corridor'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="population-estimate-table"
! Species
! Year
! Abundance estimate (95% CI)
! Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI)
! Encounter rate (nests/km)
! Area
! Method
! Source
! Comments
! A.P.E.S. database ID
|-
|''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii''
|2013
|256 (246-321)
|0.4 (0.34-0.47)
|
|633 sq. km Budongo-Bugoma corridor
|Genetic capture-with-replacement
|McCarthy et al. 2015
|
|
|}
= Threats = <!-- a text overview of threats, followed by a table of key threats -->
Chimpanzees in the Budongo-Bugoma Corridor region are threatened principally by habitat loss, as remaining areas of riparian forest are logged for timber and converted for small-scale and commercial agriculture. In addition to commercially produced crops such as tobacco, rice and sugarcane (McLennan & Hill 2015), exotic timber is also widely grown, including species such as eucalyptus and Caribbean pine. Growing infrastructure, including the construction of paved roads for oil extraction, has increased the risks for chimpanzees, and chimpanzees have been killed regionally by vehicle traffic (McLennan & Asiimwe 2016; McLennan et al. 2021). Human-wildlife conflict presents another major threat to chimpanzee survival (McLennan & Hill 2012), and chimpanzees have been killed by illegal mantraps set in order to discourage crop feeding (McLennan et al., 2012; Cibot et al., 2019). Disease risk also threatens chimpanzees; this risk includes respiratory diseases as well as gastrointestinal parasites (McLennan et al., 2017; 2018).
'''Table 3. Threats to apes in Budongo-Bugoma corridor'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="threats-table"
!align="left"|Category <!-- PLEASE DO NOT CHANGE THE THREAT CATEGORIES -->
!Specific threats <!-- For specific threats, please use list of comma separated keywords from the IUCN list linked below -->
!Threat level <!-- For threat level, please use keywords: low, medium, high, present, absent, unknown-->
!Quantified severity <!-- Enter any available quantification of the threat, e.g., the proportion of the area affected by the threat, hunting sign encounter rates-->
!Description <!-- Add descriptive information -->
!Year of threat <!-- Enter specific year(s), “ongoing”, or “unknown”. If the threat is ongoing, please add the year of reference in parentheses -->
|-
|1. Residential & commercial development
|
|Absent
|
|
|
|-
|2. Agriculture & aquaculture
|2.1 Annual & perennial non-timber crops
|High
|
|Habitat loss due to agricultural expansion for commercial and subsistence farming, leading to increased human-chimpanzee conflict (McLennan et al. 2012; McLennan & Hill 2015; Oxley 2019).
|v
|-
|2. Agriculture & aquaculture
|2.2 Wood & pulp plantations
|High
|
|Habitat loss due to expansion of exotic timber plantations (McLennan et al. 2021).
|Ongoing (2020)
|-
|3. Energy production & mining
|3.1 Oil & gas drilling
|High
|
|Pipeline being built in the area, leading to development of infrastructure and associated mounting anthropogenic pressures on chimpanzees (McLennan et al. 2021).
|Ongoing (2020)
|-
|4. Transportation & service corridors
|4.1 Roads & railroads
|High
|At least two chimpanzees are known to have been killed in collisions with vehicles while crossing roads (McLennan & Asiimwe 2016; McLennan et al. 2021).
|Risk of vehicle collision as chimpanzees frequently have to cross roads; further development of roads in connection to the construction of the oil pipeline (McLennan et al. 2021).
|Ongoing (2020)
|-
|5. Biological resource use
|
|Absent
|
|
|
|-
|6. Human intrusion & disturbance
|
|Absent
|
|
|
|-
|7. Natural system modifications
|7.3 Other ecosystem modifications
|High
|
|Reduced options for female dispersal caused by clearance of riparian forest corridors (McCarthy et al. 2018).
|Ongoing (2020)
|-
|8. Invasive & other problematic species, genes, diseases
|
|High
|
|Chimpanzees throughout the region have daily contact with humans and domestic animals, and are at risk from respiratory diseases and gastrointestinal parasites (McLennan et al., 2017; 2018).
|Ongoing (2020)
|-
|9. Pollution
|
|Absent
|
|
|
|-
|10. Geological Events
|
|Absent
|
|
|
|-
| 11. Climate change & severe weather
|
|Unknown
|
|
|
|-
|12. Other options
|12.1 Other threat
|High
|19% of individuals of one community in the corridor ('Mairirwe community') exhibit limb deformities consistent with injuries caused by wire snares or steel traps (BCCP, unpublished data).
|Snare and trap injuries can result in lethal injuries. Traps are sometimes placed by farmers around agricultural gardens to reduce crop losses (McLennan 2008; McLennan et al. 2012; Cibot et al., 2019).
|Ongoing (2020)
|-
|}
[https://www.iucnredlist.org/resources/threat-classification-scheme IUCN Threats list]
= Conservation activities = <!-- A summary of the conservation activities, followed by a table of key activities -->
The Bulindi Chimpanzee & Community Project (https://bulindichimpanzees.weebly.com/) was established in 2015 with the main goal of halting ongoing deforestation to protect resident chimpanzees. BCCP links chimpanzee conservation to improving livelihoods of local people and conserving and enriching remaining natural forest. In 2020, BCCP has distributed 1.4 million tree seedlings in more than 150 local villages distributed throughout the corridor. The project also partners with water nonprofits to create village boreholes, provides fuel-efficient stoves, supports women’s health and livelihoods, and contributes to school fees for youth in forest-owning families that preserve their forests (BCCP 2020). Other non-government organizations also working to conserve chimpanzees in the Budongo-Bugoma corridor include the Jane Goodall Institute-Uganda and Chimpanzee Trust.
'''Table 4. Conservation activities in Budongo-Bugoma corridor'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="conservation-actions-table"
!align="left"|Category <!-- PLEASE DO NOT CHANGE THE CATEGORIES -->
!Specific activity <!-- For specific threats, please use list from the list linked below, OR enter “Not reported” -->
!Description <!-- Add descriptive information -->
!Year of activity <!-- Add descriptive information -->
|-
|1. Residential & commercial development
|Not reported
|
|
|-
|2. Agriculture & aquaculture
|Not reported
|
|
|-
|3. Energy production & mining
|Not reported
|
|
|-
|4. Transportation & service corridors
|Not reported
|
|
|-
|5. Biological resource use
|5.17. Provide sustainable alternative livelihoods; establish fish- or domestic meat farms
|BCCP has an extensive tree planting program in the Budongo-Bugoma corridor, including raising indigenous tree species for habitat enrichment, coffee as an alternative livelihood for farmers, and fast-growing timber species for household woodlots. The woodlots provide local households with an alternative source of wood and alternative income from timber sales, reducing reliance on remaining natural forest (BCCP 2020).
|Ongoing (2020)
|-
|6. Human intrusion & disturbance
|Not reported
|
|
|-
|7. Natural system modifications
|Not reported
|
|
|-
|8. Invasive & other problematic species, genes, diseases
|Not reported
|
|
|-
|9. Pollution
|Not reported
|
|
|-
|10. Education & Awareness
|Not reported
|
|
|-
|11. Habitat Protection
|Not reported
|
|
|-
|12. Species Management
|Not reported
|
|
|-
|13. Livelihood; Economic & Other Incentives
|13.1. Provide monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g. REDD, employment)
|BCCP supports a women's business savings programme to boost family incomes via environmentally-friendly household projects (BCCP 2020).
|Ongoing (2020)
|-
|13. Livelihood; Economic & Other Incentives
|13.2. Provide non-monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g. better education, infrastructure development)
|BCCP installs village boreholes, builds energy stoves, and supports schoolchildren from forest-owning families (BCCP 2020).
|Ongoing (2020)
|-
|}
[[Conservation activities list (Junker et al. 2017)]]
= Challenges = <!-- Overview of challenges in ape conservation -->
Ongoing habitat conversion (clearance of riparian forest and wetlands for agriculture) for commercial and subsistence agriculture, leading to high levels of 'conflict' between chimpanzees and farmers (McLennan 2008; McLennan & Hill 2015). Feeding on agricultural crops is habitual behavior by chimpanzee communities throughout the Budongo-Bugoma corridor, leading to growing intolerance towards chimpanzees (McLennan & Hill 2012) and occasional trappings and retaliatory killings (McLennan et al. 2012; BCCP, unpublished data). Infrastructural development (e.g. road upgrades, urbanisation) is driving rapid changes to the chimpanzee habitat (McLennan et al. 2021).
'''Table 5. Challenges reported for Budongo-Bugoma corridor'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="challenges-table"
!align="left"|Challenge <!-- Do not change categories -->
!Source <!-- Source for challenge mentioned -->
|-
|Lack of financial means
|McLennan, pers. comm.
|-
|Lack of law enforcement
|McLennan 2008
|-
|Lack of national protection
|McLennan 2008
|-
|}
= Research activities = <!-- Overview of research activities -->
Several resident chimpanzee communities within the Budongo-Bugoma corridor are subjects of ongoing research and monitoring (BCCP 2020), including the long-term Bulindi study community (e.g. McLennan et al. 2019b). Other communities under study include the Kasokwa-Kityedo (Reynolds et al. 2003), Kasongoire (Oxley 2019), Wagaisa (McCarthy et al. 2017; McLennan et al. 2021) and Mairirwe (McLennan et al. 2019a) communities. Locations of these communities are shown in McCarthy et al. (2015, 2018).
<div><ul>
<li style="display: inline-block;">[[File: Chimpanzee nests in exotic eucalyptus trees (Photo by Matthew McLennan) (1)_2.JPG | 300px | thumb| right | Chimpanzee nests in exotic eucalyptus trees (Photo by Matthew McLennan)]]
<li style="display: inline-block;"> [[File: Male chimpanzee in a pine tree in the Wagaisa area (photo by Jack Lester)_2.JPG | 300px | thumb| right | Male chimpanzee in a pine tree in the Wagaisa area (photo by Jack Lester)]]
<li style="display: inline-block;"> [[File: Male chimpanzees eating commercially farmed sugarcane, Wagaisa area (Photo by Bulindi Chimpanzee & Community Project) (1)_2.JPG | 300px | thumb| right |Male chimpanzees eating commercially farmed sugarcane, Wagaisa area (Photo by Bulindi Chimpanzee & Community Project)]]
</ul></div>
===Documented behaviours=== <!-- List of any behaviours observed at the site, including citations -->
'''Table 6. Ape behaviors reported for Budongo-Bugoma corridor'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="behaviors-table"
!align="left"|Behavior
!Source
|-
|Eucalyptus bark eating
|McCarthy et al. 2017; McLennan et al. 2021
|-
|Nesting in introduced tree species (eucalyptus, cocoa, guava, Caribbean pine)
|McCarthy et al. 2017; McLennan et al. 2021
|-
|Making ground nests
|McCarthy et al. 2017
|-
|Crop feeding
|Reynolds et al. 2003; McLennan 2008; Oxley 2019; McLennan et al. 2021
|-
|Road crossing
|McLennan et al. 2021
|-
|Honey digging with stick tools
|McLennan et al. 2019a, 2019b
|-
|Food sharing (agricultural crops)
|BCCP, unpublished data
|-
|}
=External links=
[https://bulindichimpanzees.weebly.com/ Bulindi Chimpanzee & Community Project website]<br>
[https://www.facebook.com/bulindichimpanzees/ Bulindi Chimpanzees Facebook]<br>
[https://www.instagram.com/bulindichimps/ Bulindi Chimpanzees Instagram]<br>
[https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/2019/11/chimps-and-people-are-clashing-in-rural-uganda-feature/ Bulindi National Geographic]<br>
===Relevant datasets===
[http://apesportal.eva.mpg.de/database/archiveMap A.P.E.S Portal]
= References =
BCCP. (2020). 2019 Annual Report to Friends & Funders. Bulindi Chimpanzee and Community Project, Hoima, Uganda. <br>
Cibot, M., Le Roux, S., Rohen, J., & McLennan, M.R. (2019). Death of a trapped chimpanzee: survival and conservation of great apes in unprotected agricultural areas of Uganda. African Primates 13, 47-56. <br>
McCarthy, M. S., Lester, J. D., Howe, E. J., Arandjelovic, M., Stanford, C. B., & Vigilant, L. (2015). Genetic censusing identifies an unexpectedly sizeable population of an endangered large mammal in a fragmented forest landscape. BMC Ecology, 15(1), 21. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12898-015-0052-x <br>
McCarthy, M. S., Lester, J. D., & Stanford, C. B. (2017). Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) flexibly use introduced species for nesting and bark feeding in a human-dominated habitat. International Journal of Primatology, 38(2), 321-337. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10764-016-9916-y <br>
McCarthy, M. S., Lester, J. D., Langergraber, K. E., Stanford, C. B., & Vigilant, L. (2018). Genetic analysis suggests dispersal among chimpanzees in a fragmented forest landscape in Uganda. American Journal of Primatology, 80(9), e22902. <br>
McLennan, M.R. (2008). Beleaguered chimpanzees in the agricultural district of Hoima, Western Uganda. Primate Conservation 23, 45–54. <br>
McLennan, M.R. & Asiimwe, C. (2016). Cars kill chimpanzees: case report of a wild chimpanzee killed on a road at Bulindi, Uganda. Primates 57, 377-388. <br>
McLennan, M.R., Hasegawa, H., Bardi, M., & Huffman, M.A. (2017). Gastrointestinal parasite infections and self-medication in wild chimpanzees surviving in degraded forest fragments within an agricultural landscape mosaic in Uganda. PLoS ONE 12, e0180431. <br>
McLennan, M.R. & Hill, C.M. (2012). Troublesome neighbours: changing attitudes towards chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) in a human-dominated landscape in Uganda. Journal for Nature Conservation 20, 219-227. <br>
McLennan, M.R. & Hill, C.M. (2015). Changing agricultural practices and human-chimpanzee interactions: tobacco and sugarcane farming in and around Bulindi, Uganda. In: Arcus Foundation, ed. State of the Apes Volume II: Industrial Agriculture and Ape Conservation. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. <br>
McLennan, M. R., Hintz, B., Kiiza, V., Rohen, J., Lorenti, G. A., & Hockings, K. J. (2021). Surviving at the extreme: chimpanzee ranging is not restricted in a deforested human‐dominated landscape in Uganda. African Journal of Ecology, https://doi.org/10.1111/aje.12803 <br>
McLennan, M. R., Hyeroba, D., Asiimwe, C., Reynolds, V., & Wallis, J. (2012). Chimpanzees in mantraps: lethal crop protection and conservation in Uganda. Oryx, 46(4), 598-603. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605312000592 <br>
McLennan, M.R., Lorenti, G.A., Mugenyi, S., Muganzi, J., & Rohen, J. (2019a). Digging for clues: stick tools used for honey digging in a second community of ‘forest fragment chimpanzees’ outside the Budongo and Bugoma Forests, Uganda. Revue de Primatologie, 10, https://doi.org/10.4000/primatologie.6718 <br>
McLennan, M.R., Mori, H., Mahittikorn, A., Prasertbun, R., Hagiwara, K., & Huffman, M.A. (2018). Zoonotic enterobacterial pathogens detected in wild chimpanzees. Ecohealth 15, 143-147. <br>
McLennan, M.R., Rohen, J., Satsias, Z., Sabiiti, T., Baruzaliire, J.-M., & Cibot, M. (2019b). ‘Customary’ use of stick tools by chimpanzees in Bulindi, Uganda: update and analysis of digging techniques from behavioural observations. Revue de Primatologie, 10, https://doi.org/10.4000/primatologie.6706 <br>
Oxley, A. S. (2019). Great ape conservation in the matrix: Investigating the socio-ecological responses of chimpanzees living in a forest–farm mosaic, Uganda. Oxford Brookes University, UK (unpublished doctoral dissertation) <br>
Plumptre, A.J. et al. (2010). Eastern Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii): Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan, 2010-2020. IUCN, Switzerland. <br>
Reynolds, V., Wallis, J., & Kyamanywa, R. (2003). Fragments, sugar, and chimpanzees in Masindi District, western Uganda. In L. K. Marsh (Ed.), Primates in fragments: Ecology and conservation (pp. 309–320). USA: Springer. <br>
Twongyirwe, R., Bithell, M., Richards, K. S., & Rees, W. G. (2015). Three decades of forest cover change in Uganda’s Northern Albertine Rift Landscape. Land Use Policy, 49, 236-251. <br>
<br>
'''Page completed by: '''Matthew McLennan, Maureen McCarthy & Jack Lester''' Date:''' 23/12/2020 <!-- If you don't want to add your name, you can add "A.P.E.S. Wiki team" -->