Conservation activities list (Junker et al. 2017)
1. Threat: Residential and commercial development
- Remove and relocate ‘problem’ animals
- Relocate primates to non-residential areas
- Discourage the planting of fruit trees and vegetable gardens on the urban edge
2. Threat: Agriculture
- Create natural habitat islands within agricultural land
- Use fences as biological corridors for primates
- Provide sacrificial rows of crops on outer side of fields
- Compensate farmers for produce loss caused by primates
- Pay farmers to cover the costs of non-harmful strategies to deter primates
- Retain nesting trees/shelter for primates within agricultural fields
- Plant nesting trees/shelter for primates within agricultural fields
- Prohibit (livestock) farmers from entering protected areas
- Regularly remove traps and snares around agricultural fields
- Certify farms and market their products as ‘primate friendly’
- Farm more intensively and effectively in selected areas and spare more natural land
- Install mechanical barriers to deter primates (e.g. fences, ditches)
- Use of natural hedges to deter primates
- Use of unpalatable buffer crops
- Change of crop (i.e. to a crop less palatable to primates)
- Plant crops favoured by primates away from primate areas
- Destroy habitat within buffer zones to make them unusable for primates
- Use nets to keep primates out of fruit trees
- Use GPS and/or VHF tracking devices on individuals of problem troops to provide farmers with early warning of crop raiding
- Chase primates using dogs
- Train langur monkeys to deter rhesus macaques
- Use loud-speakers to broadcast sounds of potential threats (e.g. barking dogs, explosions, gunshots)
- Use loud-speakers to broadcast primate alarm calls
- Strategically lay out the scent of a primate predator (e.g. leopard, lion)
- Humans chase primates using random loud noise
- Humans chase primates using bright light
3. Threat: Energy and Production Mining
- Minimize ground vibrations caused by open cast mining activities
- Establish no-mining zones in/near watersheds so as to preserve water levels and water quality
- Use 'set-aside' areas of natural habitat for primate protection within mining area
- Certify mines and market their products as ‘primate friendly’ (e.g. ape-friendly cellular phones)
- Create/preserve primate habitat on islands before dam construction
4. Threat: Transportation and Service Corridors
- Install green bridges (overpasses)
- Install rope or pole (canopy) bridges
- Implement speed limits in particular areas (e.g. with high primate densities) to reduce vehicle collisions with primates
- Reduce road widths
- Impose fines for breaking the speed limit or colliding with primates
- Avoid building roads in key habitat or migration routes
- Implement a minimum number of roads (& minimize secondary roads) needed to reach mining extraction sites
- Re-use old roads rather than building new roads
- Re-route vehicles around protected areas
- Install speed bumps to reduce vehicle collisions with primates
- Provide adequate signage of presence of primates on or near roads
5. Threat: Biological Resource Use Hunting
- Implement no-hunting seasons for primates
- Implement sustainable harvesting of primates (e.g. permits)
- Encourage use of traditional hunting methods rather than using guns
- Implement road blocks to inspect cars for illegal primate bushmeat
- Provide medicine to local communities to control killing of primates for medicinal purposes
- Conduct regular anti-poaching patrols
- Introduce ammunition tax
- Inspect bushmeat markets for illegal primate species
- Regularly de-activate/remove ground snares
- Provide better equipment (e.g. guns) to anti-poaching ranger patrols
- Provide training to anti-poaching ranger patrols
- Implement local no-hunting community policies/traditional hunting ban
- Strengthen/support/re-install traditions/taboos that forbid the killing of primates
- Inform hunters of the dangers (e.g., disease transmission) of wild primate meat
- Implement monitoring surveillance strategies (e.g. SMART) or use monitoring data to improve effectiveness of wildlife law enforcement patrols
- Implement community control of patrolling, banning hunting and removing snares
Substitution
- Provide sustainable alternative livelihoods; establish fish- or domestic meat farms
- Employ hunters in the conservation sector to reduce their impact
Logging and wood harvesting
- Use selective logging instead of clear-cutting
- Use patch retention harvesting instead of clear-cutting
- Implement small and dispersed logging compartments
- Use shelter wood cutting instead of clear-cutting
- Leave hollow trees in areas of selective logging for sleeping sites
- Clear open patches in the forest
- Thin trees within forests
- Coppice trees
- Manually control or remove secondary mid-storey and ground-level vegetation
- Avoid slashing climbers/lianas, trees housing them, hemi-epiphytic figs, and ground vegetation
- Avoid/minimize logging of important food tree species for primates
- Incorporate forested corridors or buffers into logged areas
- Close non-essential roads as soon as logging operations are complete
- Use 'set-asides' for primate protection within logging area
- Work inward from barriers or boundaries (e.g. river) to avoid pushing primates toward an impassable barrier or inhospitable habitat
- Reduce the size of forestry teams to include employees only (not family members)
- Certify forest concessions and market their products as ‘primate friendly’
- Provide domestic meat to workers of the logging company to reduce hunting
6. Threat: Human Intrusions & Disturbance
- Implement a ‘no-feeding of wild primates’ policy
- Build fences to keep humans out
- Restrict number of people that are allowed access to site
- Install ‘primate-proof’ garbage bins
- Put up signs to warn people about not feeding primates
- Do not allow people to consume food within natural areas where primates can view them
- Resettle illegal human communities (i.e. in a protected area) to another location
7. Threat: Natural System Modifications
- Use prescribed burning within the context of home range size and use
- Protect important food/nest trees before burning
8. Threat: Invasive & Other Problematic Species & Genes
- Reduce primate predation by other non-primate species through exclusion (e.g. fences) or translocation
- Reduce primate predation by other primate species through exclusion (e.g. fences) or translocation
- Control habitat-altering mammals (e.g. elephants) through exclusion (e.g. fences) or translocation
- Control inter-specific competition for food through exclusion (e.g. fences) or translocation
- Remove alien invasive vegetation where the latter has a clear negative effect on the primate species in question
- Prevent gene contamination by alien primate species introduced by humans, through exclusion (e.g. fences) or translocation
Disease transmission
- Wear face-masks to avoid transmission of viral and bacterial diseases to primates
- Keep safety distance to habituated animals
- Limit time that researchers/tourists are allowed to spend with habituated animals
- Implement quarantine for people arriving at, and leaving the site
- Implement quarantine for primates before reintroduction/translocation
- Ensure that researchers/tourists are up-to-date with vaccinations and healthy
- Regularly disinfect clothes, boots etc.
- Wear gloves when handling primate food, tool items, etc.
- Preventative vaccination of habituated or wild primates
- Treat sick/injured animals
- Remove/treat external/internal parasites to increase reproductive success/survival
- Control 'reservoir' species to reduce parasite burdens/pathogen sources
- Conduct veterinary screens of animals before reintroducing/translocating them
- Implement continuous health monitoring with permanent vet on site
- Avoid contact between wild primates and human-raised primates
- Detect & report dead primates and clinically determine their cause of death to avoid disease transmission
- Implement a health programme for local communities
9. Threat: Pollution Garbage/solid waste
- Reduce garbage/solid waste to avoid primate injuries
- Remove human food waste that may potentially serve as food sources for primates to avoid disease transmission and conflict with humans
Excess energy
- Reduce noise pollution by restricting development activities to certain times of the day/night
10. Education & Awareness Awareness & communications
- Educate local communities about primates and sustainable use
- Involve local community in primate research and conservation management
- Install billboards to raise primate conservation awareness
- Regularly play TV & radio announcements to raise primate conservation awareness
- Implement multimedia campaigns using theatre, film, print media, discussions
- Integrate religion/local taboos into conservation education
11. Habitat Protection Habitat protection
- Create buffer zones around protected primate habitat
- Legally protect primate habitat
- Establish areas for conservation which are not protected by national or international legislation (e.g. private sector standards & codes)
- Create/protect habitat corridors
- Create/protect forest patches in highly fragmented landscapes
- Demarcate and enforce boundaries of protected areas
Habitat creation or restoration
- Restore habitat corridors
- Plant indigenous trees to re-establish natural tree communities in clear-cut areas
- Plant indigenous fast-growing trees (will not necessarily resemble original community) in clear-cut areas
- Use weeding to promote regeneration of indigenous tree communities
12. Species Management Species management
- Habituate primates to human presence to reduce stress from tourists/researchers etc.
- Implement birth control to stabilize primate community/population size
- Guard habituated primate groups to ensure their safety/well-being
- Implement legal protection for primate species under threat
Species recovery
- Provide salt licks for primates
- Regularly and continuously provide supplementary food to primates
- Regularly provide supplementary food to primates during resource scarce periods only
- Provide supplementary food for a certain period of time only
- Provide supplementary food to primates through the establishment of prey populations
- Provide additional sleeping platforms/nesting sites for primates
- Provide artificial water sources
Species reintroduction
- Translocate (capture & release) wild primates from development sites to natural habitat elsewhere
- Translocate (capture & release) wild primates from abundant population areas to non-inhabited environments
- Allow primates to adapt to local habitat conditions for some time before introduction to the wild
- Reintroduce primates in groups
- Reintroduce primates as single/multiple individuals
- Reintroduce primates into habitat where the species is absent
- Reintroduce primates into habitat where the species is present
- Reintroduce primates into habitat without predators
- Reintroduce primates into habitat with predators
Ex-situ conservation
- Captive breeding and reintroduction of primates into the wild: born and reared in cages
- Captive breeding and reintroduction of primates into the wild: limited free-ranging experience
- Captive breeding and reintroduction of primates into the wild: born and raised in a free-ranging environment
- Rehabilitate injured/orphaned primates
- Fostering appropriate behaviour to facilitate rehabilitation
13. Livelihood; Economic & Other Incentives
- Provide monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g. REDD, employment)
- Provide non-monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g. better education, infrastructure development)
Long-term presence of research-/tourism project
- Run research project and ensure permanent human presence at site
- Run tourist projects and ensure permanent human presence at site
- Permanent presence of staff/manager