Conservation activities list (Junker et al. 2017)

1. Threat: Residential and commercial development

• Remove and relocate ‘problem’ animals
• Relocate primates to non-residential areas
• Discourage the planting of fruit trees and vegetable gardens on the urban edge

2. Threat: Agriculture

• Create natural habitat islands within agricultural land
• Use fences as biological corridors for primates
• Provide sacrificial rows of crops on outer side of fields
• Compensate farmers for produce loss caused by primates
• Pay farmers to cover the costs of non-harmful strategies to deter primates
• Retain nesting trees/shelter for primates within agricultural fields
• Plant nesting trees/shelter for primates within agricultural fields
• Prohibit (livestock) farmers from entering protected areas
• Regularly remove traps and snares around agricultural fields
• Certify farms and market their products as ‘primate friendly’
• Farm more intensively and effectively in selected areas and spare more natural land
• Install mechanical barriers to deter primates (e.g. fences, ditches)
• Use of natural hedges to deter primates
• Use of unpalatable buffer crops
• Change of crop (i.e. to a crop less palatable to primates)
• Plant crops favoured by primates away from primate areas
• Destroy habitat within buffer zones to make them unusable for primates
• Use nets to keep primates out of fruit trees
• Use GPS and/or VHF tracking devices on individuals of problem troops to provide farmers with early warning of crop raiding
• Chase primates using dogs
• Train langur monkeys to deter rhesus macaques
• Use loud-speakers to broadcast sounds of potential threats (e.g. barking dogs, explosions, gunshots)
• Use loud-speakers to broadcast primate alarm calls
• Strategically lay out the scent of a primate predator (e.g. leopard, lion)
• Humans chase primates using random loud noise
• Humans chase primates using bright light

3. Threat: Energy and Production Mining

• Minimize ground vibrations caused by open cast mining activities
• Establish no-mining zones in/near watersheds so as to preserve water levels and water quality
• Use 'set-aside' areas of natural habitat for primate protection within mining area
• Certify mines and market their products as ‘primate friendly’ (e.g. ape-friendly cellular phones)
• Create/preserve primate habitat on islands before dam construction

4. Threat: Transportation and Service Corridors

• Install green bridges (overpasses)
• Install rope or pole (canopy) bridges
• Implement speed limits in particular areas (e.g. with high primate densities) to reduce vehicle collisions with primates
• Reduce road widths
• Impose fines for breaking the speed limit or colliding with primates
• Avoid building roads in key habitat or migration routes
• Implement a minimum number of roads (& minimize secondary roads) needed to reach mining extraction sites
• Re-use old roads rather than building new roads
• Re-route vehicles around protected areas
• Install speed bumps to reduce vehicle collisions with primates
• Provide adequate signage of presence of primates on or near roads

5. Threat: Biological Resource Use

Hunting

• Implement no-hunting seasons for primates
• Implement sustainable harvesting of primates (e.g. permits)
• Encourage use of traditional hunting methods rather than using guns
• Implement road blocks to inspect cars for illegal primate bushmeat
• Provide medicine to local communities to control killing of primates for medicinal purposes
• Conduct regular anti-poaching patrols
• Introduce ammunition tax
• Inspect bushmeat markets for illegal primate species
• Regularly de-activate/remove ground snares
• Provide better equipment (e.g. guns) to anti-poaching ranger patrols
• Provide training to anti-poaching ranger patrols
• Implement local no-hunting community policies/traditional hunting ban
• Strengthen/support/re-install traditions/taboos that forbid the killing of primates
• Inform hunters of the dangers (e.g., disease transmission) of wild primate meat
• Implement monitoring surveillance strategies (e.g. SMART) or use monitoring data to improve effectiveness of wildlife law enforcement patrols
• Implement community control of patrolling, banning hunting and removing snares

Substitution

• Provide sustainable alternative livelihoods; establish fish- or domestic meat farms
• Employ hunters in the conservation sector to reduce their impact

Logging and wood harvesting

• Use selective logging instead of clear-cutting
• Use patch retention harvesting instead of clear-cutting
• Implement small and dispersed logging compartments
• Use shelter wood cutting instead of clear-cutting
• Leave hollow trees in areas of selective logging for sleeping sites
• Clear open patches in the forest
• Thin trees within forests
• Coppice trees
• Manually control or remove secondary mid-storey and ground-level vegetation
• Avoid slashing climbers/lianas, trees housing them, hemi-epiphytic figs, and ground vegetation
• Avoid/minimize logging of important food tree species for primates
• Incorporate forested corridors or buffers into logged areas
• Close non-essential roads as soon as logging operations are complete
• Use 'set-asides' for primate protection within logging area
• Work inward from barriers or boundaries (e.g. river) to avoid pushing primates toward an impassable barrier or inhospitable habitat
• Reduce the size of forestry teams to include employees only (not family members)
• Certify forest concessions and market their products as ‘primate friendly’
• Provide domestic meat to workers of the logging company to reduce hunting

6. Threat: Human Intrusions & Disturbance

• Implement a ‘no-feeding of wild primates’ policy
• Build fences to keep humans out
• Restrict number of people that are allowed access to site
• Install ‘primate-proof’ garbage bins
• Put up signs to warn people about not feeding primates
• Do not allow people to consume food within natural areas where primates can view them
• Resettle illegal human communities (i.e. in a protected area) to another location

7. Threat: Natural System Modifications

• Use prescribed burning within the context of home range size and use
• Protect important food/nest trees before burning

8. Threat: Invasive & Other Problematic Species & Genes

• Reduce primate predation by other non-primate species through exclusion (e.g. fences) or translocation
• Reduce primate predation by other primate species through exclusion (e.g. fences) or translocation
• Control habitat-altering mammals (e.g. elephants) through exclusion (e.g. fences) or translocation
• Control inter-specific competition for food through exclusion (e.g. fences) or translocation
• Remove alien invasive vegetation where the latter has a clear negative effect on the primate species in question
• Prevent gene contamination by alien primate species introduced by humans, through exclusion (e.g. fences) or translocation

Disease transmission

• Wear face-masks to avoid transmission of viral and bacterial diseases to primates
• Keep safety distance to habituated animals
• Limit time that researchers/tourists are allowed to spend with habituated animals
• Implement quarantine for people arriving at, and leaving the site
• Implement quarantine for primates before reintroduction/translocation
• Ensure that researchers/tourists are up-to-date with vaccinations and healthy
• Regularly disinfect clothes, boots etc.
• Wear gloves when handling primate food, tool items, etc.
• Preventative vaccination of habituated or wild primates
• Treat sick/injured animals
• Remove/treat external/internal parasites to increase reproductive success/survival
• Control 'reservoir' species to reduce parasite burdens/pathogen sources
• Conduct veterinary screens of animals before reintroducing/translocating them
• Implement continuous health monitoring with permanent vet on site
• Avoid contact between wild primates and human-raised primates
• Detect & report dead primates and clinically determine their cause of death to avoid disease transmission
• Implement a health programme for local communities

9. Threat: Pollution

Garbage/solid waste

• Reduce garbage/solid waste to avoid primate injuries
• Remove human food waste that may potentially serve as food sources for primates to avoid disease transmission and conflict with humans

Excess energy

• Reduce noise pollution by restricting development activities to certain times of the day/night

10. Education & Awareness

Awareness & communications

• Educate local communities about primates and sustainable use
• Involve local community in primate research and conservation management
• Install billboards to raise primate conservation awareness
• Regularly play TV & radio announcements to raise primate conservation awareness
• Implement multimedia campaigns using theatre, film, print media, discussions
• Integrate religion/local taboos into conservation education

11. Habitat Protection

Habitat protection

• Create buffer zones around protected primate habitat
• Legally protect primate habitat
• Establish areas for conservation which are not protected by national or international legislation (e.g. private sector standards & codes)
• Create/protect habitat corridors
• Create/protect forest patches in highly fragmented landscapes
• Demarcate and enforce boundaries of protected areas

Habitat creation or restoration

• Restore habitat corridors
• Plant indigenous trees to re-establish natural tree communities in clear-cut areas
• Plant indigenous fast-growing trees (will not necessarily resemble original community) in clear-cut areas
• Use weeding to promote regeneration of indigenous tree communities

12. Species Management Species management

• Habituate primates to human presence to reduce stress from tourists/researchers etc.
• Implement birth control to stabilize primate community/population size
• Guard habituated primate groups to ensure their safety/well-being
• Implement legal protection for primate species under threat

Species recovery

• Provide salt licks for primates
• Regularly and continuously provide supplementary food to primates
• Regularly provide supplementary food to primates during resource scarce periods only
• Provide supplementary food for a certain period of time only
• Provide supplementary food to primates through the establishment of prey populations
• Provide additional sleeping platforms/nesting sites for primates
• Provide artificial water sources

Species reintroduction

• Translocate (capture & release) wild primates from development sites to natural habitat elsewhere
• Translocate (capture & release) wild primates from abundant population areas to non-inhabited environments
• Allow primates to adapt to local habitat conditions for some time before introduction to the wild
• Reintroduce primates in groups
• Reintroduce primates as single/multiple individuals
• Reintroduce primates into habitat where the species is absent
• Reintroduce primates into habitat where the species is present
• Reintroduce primates into habitat without predators
• Reintroduce primates into habitat with predators

Ex-situ conservation

• Captive breeding and reintroduction of primates into the wild: born and reared in cages
• Captive breeding and reintroduction of primates into the wild: limited free-ranging experience
• Captive breeding and reintroduction of primates into the wild: born and raised in a free-ranging environment
• Rehabilitate injured/orphaned primates
• Fostering appropriate behaviour to facilitate rehabilitation

13. Livelihood; Economic & Other Incentives

• Provide monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g. REDD, employment)
• Provide non-monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g. better education, infrastructure development)

Long-term presence of research-/tourism project

• Run research project and ensure permanent human presence at site
• Run tourist projects and ensure permanent human presence at site
• Permanent presence of staff/manager