Conservation activities list (Junker et al. 2017)

1. Threat: Residential and commercial development 1.1. Remove and relocate ‘problem’ animals 1.2. Relocate primates to non-residential areas 1.3. Discourage the planting of fruit trees and vegetable gardens on the urban edge

2. Threat: Agriculture 2.1. Create natural habitat islands within agricultural land 2.2. Use fences as biological corridors for primates 2.3. Provide sacrificial rows of crops on outer side of fields 2.4. Compensate farmers for produce loss caused by primates 2.5. Pay farmers to cover the costs of non-harmful strategies to deter primates 2.6. Retain nesting trees/shelter for primates within agricultural fields 2.7. Plant nesting trees/shelter for primates within agricultural fields 2.8. Prohibit (livestock) farmers from entering protected areas 2.9. Regularly remove traps and snares around agricultural fields 2.10. Certify farms and market their products as ‘primate friendly’ 2.11. Farm more intensively and effectively in selected areas and spare more natural land 2.12. Install mechanical barriers to deter primates (e.g. fences, ditches) 2.13. Use of natural hedges to deter primates 2.14. Use of unpalatable buffer crops 2.15. Change of crop (i.e. to a crop less palatable to primates) 2.16. Plant crops favoured by primates away from primate areas 2.17. Destroy habitat within buffer zones to make them unusable for primates 2.18. Use nets to keep primates out of fruit trees 2.19. Use GPS and/or VHF tracking devices on individuals of problem troops to provide farmers with early warning of crop raiding 2.20. Chase primates using dogs 2.21. Train langur monkeys to deter rhesus macaques 2.22. Use loud-speakers to broadcast sounds of potential threats (e.g. barking dogs, explosions, gunshots) 2.23. Use loud-speakers to broadcast primate alarm calls 2.24. Strategically lay out the scent of a primate predator (e.g. leopard, lion) 2.25. Humans chase primates using random loud noise 2.26. Humans chase primates using bright light

3. Threat: Energy and Production Mining 3.1. Minimize ground vibrations caused by open cast mining activities

3.2. Establish no-mining zones in/near watersheds so as to preserve water levels and water quality 3.3. Use 'set-aside' areas of natural habitat for primate protection within mining area 3.4. Certify mines and market their products as ‘primate friendly’ (e.g. ape-friendly cellular phones) 3.5. Create/preserve primate habitat on islands before dam construction

4. Threat: Transportation and Service Corridors 4.1. Install green bridges (overpasses) 4.2. Install rope or pole (canopy) bridges 4.3. Implement speed limits in particular areas (e.g. with high primate densities) to reduce vehicle collisions with primates 4.4. Reduce road widths 4.5. Impose fines for breaking the speed limit or colliding with primates 4.6. Avoid building roads in key habitat or migration routes 4.7. Implement a minimum number of roads (& minimize secondary roads) needed to reach mining extraction sites 4.8. Re-use old roads rather than building new roads 4.9. Re-route vehicles around protected areas 4.10. Install speed bumps to reduce vehicle collisions with primates 4.11. Provide adequate signage of presence of primates on or near roads

5. Threat: Biological Resource Use Hunting 5.1. Implement no-hunting seasons for primates 5.2. Implement sustainable harvesting of primates (e.g. permits) 5.3. Encourage use of traditional hunting methods rather than using guns 5.4. Implement road blocks to inspect cars for illegal primate bushmeat 5.5. Provide medicine to local communities to control killing of primates for medicinal purposes 5.6. Conduct regular anti-poaching patrols 5.7. Introduce ammunition tax 5.8. Inspect bushmeat markets for illegal primate species 5.9. Regularly de-activate/remove ground snares 5.10. Provide better equipment (e.g. guns) to anti-poaching ranger patrols 5.11. Provide training to anti-poaching ranger patrols 5.12. Implement local no-hunting community policies/traditional hunting ban 5.13. Strengthen/support/re-install traditions/taboos that forbid the killing of primates 5.14. Inform hunters of the dangers (e.g., disease transmission) of wild primate meat 5.15. Implement monitoring surveillance strategies (e.g. SMART) or use monitoring data to improve effectiveness of wildlife law enforcement patrols 5.16. Implement community control of patrolling, banning hunting and removing snares

Substitution 5.17. Provide sustainable alternative livelihoods; establish fish- or domestic meat farms 5.18. Employ hunters in the conservation sector to reduce their impact

Logging and wood harvesting 5.19. Use selective logging instead of clear-cutting 5.20. Use patch retention harvesting instead of clear-cutting 5.21. Implement small and dispersed logging compartments 5.22. Use shelter wood cutting instead of clear-cutting 5.23. Leave hollow trees in areas of selective logging for sleeping sites 5.24. Clear open patches in the forest 5.25. Thin trees within forests 5.26. Coppice trees 5.27. Manually control or remove secondary mid-storey and ground-level vegetation 5.28. Avoid slashing climbers/lianas, trees housing them, hemi-epiphytic figs, and ground vegetation 5.29. Avoid/minimize logging of important food tree species for primates 5.30. Incorporate forested corridors or buffers into logged areas 5.31. Close non-essential roads as soon as logging operations are complete 5.32. Use 'set-asides' for primate protection within logging area 5.33. Work inward from barriers or boundaries (e.g. river) to avoid pushing primates toward an impassable barrier or inhospitable habitat 5.34. Reduce the size of forestry teams to include employees only (not family members) 5.35. Certify forest concessions and market their products as ‘primate friendly’ 5.36. Provide domestic meat to workers of the logging company to reduce hunting

6. Threat: Human Intrusions & Disturbance 6.1. Implement a ‘no-feeding of wild primates’ policy 6.2. Build fences to keep humans out 6.3. Restrict number of people that are allowed access to site 6.4. Install ‘primate-proof’ garbage bins 6.5. Put up signs to warn people about not feeding primates 6.6. Do not allow people to consume food within natural areas where primates can view them 6.7. Resettle illegal human communities (i.e. in a protected area) to another location

7. Threat: Natural System Modifications

7.1. Use prescribed burning within the context of home range size and use 7.2. Protect important food/nest trees before burning

8. Threat: Invasive & Other Problematic Species & Genes 8.1. Reduce primate predation by other non-primate species through exclusion (e.g. fences) or translocation 8.2. Reduce primate predation by other primate species through exclusion (e.g. fences) or translocation 8.3. Control habitat-altering mammals (e.g. elephants) through exclusion (e.g. fences) or translocation 8.4. Control inter-specific competition for food through exclusion (e.g. fences) or translocation 8.5. Remove alien invasive vegetation where the latter has a clear negative effect on the primate species in question 8.6. Prevent gene contamination by alien primate species introduced by humans, through exclusion (e.g. fences) or translocation

Disease transmission 8.7. Wear face-masks to avoid transmission of viral and bacterial diseases to primates 8.8. Keep safety distance to habituated animals 8.9. Limit time that researchers/tourists are allowed to spend with habituated animals 8.10. Implement quarantine for people arriving at, and leaving the site 8.11. Implement quarantine for primates before reintroduction/translocation 8.12. Ensure that researchers/tourists are up-to-date with vaccinations and healthy 8.13. Regularly disinfect clothes, boots etc. 8.14. Wear gloves when handling primate food, tool items, etc. 8.15. Preventative vaccination of habituated or wild primates 8.16. Treat sick/injured animals 8.17. Remove/treat external/internal parasites to increase reproductive success/survival 8.18. Control 'reservoir' species to reduce parasite burdens/pathogen sources 8.19. Conduct veterinary screens of animals before reintroducing/translocating them 8.20. Implement continuous health monitoring with permanent vet on site 8.21. Avoid contact between wild primates and human-raised primates 8.22. Detect & report dead primates and clinically determine their cause of death to avoid disease transmission 8.23. Implement a health programme for local communities

9. Threat: Pollution Garbage/solid waste 9.1. Reduce garbage/solid waste to avoid primate injuries 9.2. Remove human food waste that may potentially serve as food sources for primates to avoid disease transmission and conflict with humans Excess energy 9.3. Reduce noise pollution by restricting development activities to certain times of the day/night

10. Education & Awareness Awareness & communications 10.1. Educate local communities about primates and sustainable use 10.2. Involve local community in primate research and conservation management 10.3. Install billboards to raise primate conservation awareness 10.4. Regularly play TV & radio announcements to raise primate conservation awareness 10.5. Implement multimedia campaigns using theatre, film, print media, discussions 10.6. Integrate religion/local taboos into conservation education

11. Habitat Protection Habitat protection 11.1. Create buffer zones around protected primate habitat 11.2. Legally protect primate habitat 11.3. Establish areas for conservation which are not protected by national or international legislation (e.g. private sector standards & codes) 11.4. Create/protect habitat corridors 11.5. Create/protect forest patches in highly fragmented landscapes 11.6. Demarcate and enforce boundaries of protected areas

Habitat creation or restoration 11.7. Restore habitat corridors 11.8. Plant indigenous trees to re-establish natural tree communities in clear-cut areas 11.9. Plant indigenous fast-growing trees (will not necessarily resemble original community) in clear-cut areas 11.10. Use weeding to promote regeneration of indigenous tree communities

12. Species Management Species management 12.1. Habituate primates to human presence to reduce stress from tourists/researchers etc. 12.2. Implement birth control to stabilize primate community/population size 12.3. Guard habituated primate groups to ensure their safety/well-being 12.4. Implement legal protection for primate species under threat

Species recovery 12.5. Provide salt licks for primates 12.6. Regularly and continuously provide supplementary food to primates 12.7. Regularly provide supplementary food to primates during resource scarce periods only 12.8. Provide supplementary food for a certain period of time only 12.9. Provide supplementary food to primates through the establishment of prey populations 12.10. Provide additional sleeping platforms/nesting sites for primates 12.11. Provide artificial water sources

Species reintroduction 12.12. Translocate (capture & release) wild primates from development sites to natural habitat elsewhere 12.13. Translocate (capture & release) wild primates from abundant population areas to non-inhabited environments 12.14. Allow primates to adapt to local habitat conditions for some time before introduction to the wild 12.15. Reintroduce primates in groups 12.16. Reintroduce primates as single/multiple individuals 12.17. Reintroduce primates into habitat where the species is absent 12.18. Reintroduce primates into habitat where the species is present 12.19. Reintroduce primates into habitat without predators 12.20. Reintroduce primates into habitat with predators

Ex-situ conservation 12.21. Captive breeding and reintroduction of primates into the wild: born and reared in cages 12.22. Captive breeding and reintroduction of primates into the wild: limited free-ranging experience 12.23. Captive breeding and reintroduction of primates into the wild: born and raised in a free-ranging environment 12.24. Rehabilitate injured/orphaned primates 12.25. Fostering appropriate behaviour to facilitate rehabilitation

13. Livelihood; Economic & Other Incentives 13.1. Provide monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g. REDD, employment) 13.2. Provide non-monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g. better education, infrastructure development)

Long-term presence of research-/tourism project 13.3. Run research project and ensure permanent human presence at site 13.4. Run tourist projects and ensure permanent human presence at site 13.5. Permanent presence of staff/manager