Bonobo
Bonobos occur only in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). They have a discontinuous range in the central Congo Basin of Equatorial Africa, south of the Congo River and are confined to an island-block of forest comprising approximately one-fifth of DRC (IUCN & ICCN 2012). Their range extends from the Lualaba River in the east, to the Lubefu River south of the Kasai/Sankuru River system, and west as far as Bolobo village and around the Lake Tumba/Lac Ndombe area. The current estimate for the minimum number of bonobos remaining is 15,000–20,000 (IUCN & ICCN 2012), and any estimates of total population size should be interpreted with caution. The overall trend is one of decline (Fruth et al. 2016). The bonobo (Pan paniscus) is classified as Endangered on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (Fruth et al. 2016), indicating that it has a high risk of extinction in the wild. The killing or capture of bonobos for any purpose is against national and international laws. Uncertainty surrounding their range and number reflects the challenging political environment in which conservation practitioners operate.
Threats
The greatest threat to bonobos, both spatially and in terms of level of impact, is hunting (which is illegal) and the commercial bushmeat trade. This is fuelled by a growing demand for bushmeat, the availability and use of modern weaponry (a residue of civil war), the disappearance of local taboos protecting bonobos, and poor law enforcement (Reinartz et al. 2013). In some areas local taboos against bonobo hunting still exist, in others they have disintegrated due to changing cultural values and immigration. Whilst commercial hunting generally targets large-bodied ungulates and monkeys, the growing predominance of bushmeat commerce as an income-generating activity has led to an increase in the number of commercial hunters (Fruth et al. 2016).
Bonobos are slow-breeding and their populations are particularly susceptible to the loss of even small numbers of individuals. Females with young are vulnerable as a threatened mother will carry her offspring even when it has grown to half her size, slowing her down and making her an easy target (Lacambra et al. 2005). The trade in live bonobo orphans remains a problem.
Habitat loss (expansion of agricultural activities, forest degradation and fragmentation) is the next biggest threat after poaching. Logging and agriculture are the main culprits of large-scale habitat destruction in DRC, but whilst logging has not yet reached the levels of other Central African countries, and bonobos do quite well in secondary forests, logging concessions overlap widely and encroach into highly-fragmented bonobo habitat (Lacambra et al. 2005; Reinartz et al. 2013). These threats have been acute in the Lac Tumba region, because of the easy river access for transporting the timber out of the region. Expanding road and rail networks facilitate the movement of bushmeat, which will severely impact the survival of bonobos and other wildlife species.
Poverty is a pervasive issue, particularly the need to engage in unsustainable activities, such as hunting and slash-and-burn agriculture, in the absence of subsistence alternatives. Living conditions are difficult for people in much of DRC, and rural populations still rely on forest products for food, shelter and fuel. Local people have poor sanitation and rudimentary healthcare, and human diseases or parasites may be transmitted to bonobos. The impacts of disease are not well understood, but on the basis of knowledge and experience in gorilla and chimpanzee range, and the repeated outbreaks of deadly diseases (like Ebola) within the bonobo’s geographic range, suggests that zoonotic disease transmission is probably a current or imminent threat (IUCN & ICCN 2012). The risk of transmission increases with increasing human population density, as well as increasing proximity between people and wildlife.
Conservation
Academic research and conservation interests flourished in DRC during the 1970s and 1980s. The Congo Wars (1996–2003) greatly disrupted these activities, although many have since resumed. Conservation and research actions have included population surveys, support for conservation infrastructure, strengthening of government staff capacity, sustainable use of natural resources directed at local communities, education programmes, scientific research with a focus on the social behaviour of bonobos, and the rehabilitation and re-introduction of confiscated bonobos (Lacambra et al. 2005). The Institute Congolais pour la Conservation de la Nature (ICCN) is responsible for managing the country’s protected areas; however, the main active and permanent presence on the ground is provided by NGOs and research projects.
Officially-gazetted protected areas are thought to harbour sizeable numbers of bonobos; however, the threats cited above put all populations at risk, irrespective of the conservation status of the area. This is due to negligible law enforcement and corruption, exacerbated by persistent political and economic instability.
Bonobo experts have drawn up several strategies for the protection of bonobo populations through a number of meetings and workshops, and an IUCN action plan was published in 2012. This was developed by 33 organizations and government departments, and identified the following key strategic areas to guide future interventions: strengthening institutional capacity for law enforcement and sustainable management of forest biodiversity (protected areas and buffer zone management, forest management and land-use planning); consultation and collaboration with local actors; awareness building and lobbying; research and monitoring; and sustainable funding (IUCN & ICCN 2012). The action plan outlines specific actions with roles and responsibilities, timelines and costs, as well as built-in mechanisms for follow-up monitoring and evaluation, and funding. It provides a clear investment plan for researchers, conservationists and donors, and will assist habitat country governments in developing strategies for the conservation of bonobos. If fully implemented, it will go a long way to supporting the maintenance of viable bonobo populations.
References
Fruth, B., Hickey, J.R., André, C., Furuichi, T., Hart, J., Hart, T., Kuehl, H., Maisels, F., Nackoney, J., Reinartz, G., Sop, T., Thompson, J. & Williamson, E.A. (2016). Pan paniscus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2016: e.T15932A17964305.
IUCN & ICCN (2012). Bonobo (Pan paniscus): Conservation Strategy 2012–2022. IUCN SSC Primate Specialist Group & Institut Congolais pour la Conservation de la Nature, Gland, Switzerland.
Lacambra, C., Thompson, J., Furuichi, T., Vervaecke, H. & Stevens, J. (2005). Bonobo (Pan paniscus). In: World Atlas of Great Apes and their Conservation. J. Caldecott & L. Miles (eds.). University of California Press, California/UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre, pp. 83–96.
Reinartz, G.E., Ingmanson, E.J. & Vervaecke, H. (2013). Pan paniscus (gracile chimpanzee (bonobo, pygmy chimpanzee). In: The Mammals of Africa. Volume II: Primates. T.M. Butynski, J. Kingdon & J. Kalina (eds.). Bloomsbury Publishing, London, UK, pp. 64–69.