Assam

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• Western hoolock gibbons (Hoolock hoolock) are present in Assam.
• The population size is unknown.
• The gibbon population trend is decreasing.
• The site has a total size of 78,438 km².
• Key threats to gibbons are habitat encroachment and illegal logging.
• Conservation activities include education and awareness raising, and supporting communities near forests with alternative income sources such as beekeeping and mushroom cultivation.

Site characteristics

The state of Assam is located in northeast India and comprises two global biodiversity hotspots: the Indo-Burma and the Himalayan hotspots (Mazumder 2014). The region is a stronghold for 12 primate species: Bengal slow loris Nycticebus bengalensis, Rhesus macaque Macaca mulatta, Assamese macaque Macaca assamensis, pig-tailed macaque Macaca leonina, stump-tailed macaque Macaca arctoides, Tibetan macaque Macaca thibetana, white-cheeked macaque Macaca luecogenys, capped langur Trachypithecus pileatus, golden langur Trachypithecus geei, Phayre’s langur Trachypithecus phayrei, western hoolock gibbon Hoolock hoolock, and eastern hoolock gibbon Hoolock leuconedys (Chetry et al. 2021).

Table 1. Basic site information for Assam

Area	78,438 km²
Coordinates	25.521581, 93.051847
Designation	Unclassified
Habitat types	Subtropical/tropical moist lowland forest

IUCN habitat categories Site designations

Ape status

In 2009, Chetry et al. (2012) recorded 33 gibbons in 10 groups based on direct sightings in the reserve forests of Hal logaon, Kukurmara, and Kundil Kalia (Chetry et al. 2021). In 2019, 17 individuals in seven groups in these three reserve forests were recorded, indicating a 48.5% population decline. The number of groups was also reduced from 26 (direct observations and call-count) in 2009 to 11 in 2019 (Chetry et al. 2021). In this time frame there was also a 18.75% increase in the proportion of adults to immatures, indicating reduced recruitment and population decline (Chetry et al. 2021).

Table 2. Ape population estimates in Assam

Species	Year	Total number indiv. (95% CI)	Total number groups (95% CI)	Density ​​[groups/km²​] (95% CI)	Area	Method	Source	Comments	A.P.E.S. database ID
Hoolock hoolock	2019	17	7		Sadiya subdivision, 789.95 km²	Line transects (Distance)	Chetry et al. 2019	Survey effort 98 km. Average group size was 2.42
Hoolock hoolock	2017-2018				Upper Brahmaputra Valley, 9851 km²	Unknown	Sarma et al. 2021

Threats

Habitat encroachment and selective illegal logging represent the most severe threats to gibbons and other wildlife in Assam (Chetry et al. 2021).

Table 3. Threats to apes in Assam

Category	Specific threats	Threat level	Quantified severity	Description	Year of threat
1. Residential & commercial development	1.1 Housing & urban areas	High		Habitat encroachment due to development activities and expansion of human settlements (Chetry et al. 2021, Chetry pers. comm. 2023).	Ongoing (2023)
2. Agriculture & aquaculture	2.1 Annual & perennial non-timber crops	High		Encroachment due to expansion of land for agriculture, including ginger and orange cultivation (Chetry et al. 2021, Chetry pers. comm. 2023). Jhum cultivation (a slash-and-burn type of shifting cultivation) has devastated large forest covers through the creation of canopy gaps and depletion of food (Mazumder 2014).	Ongoing (2023)
	2.3 Livestock farming & ranching	Present, but threat severity unknown		Livestock grazing (Chetry et al. 2021, Chetry pers. comm. 2023).	Ongoing (2023)
3. Energy production & mining	3.2 Mining & quarrying	Present, but threat severity unknown		Coal mining (Chetry pers. comm. 2023).	Ongoing (2023)
4. Transportation & service corridors	4.1 Roads & railroads	High		Expansion of roads and railroads cause habitat fragmentation and further encroachment (Chetry pers. comm. 2023).	Ongoing (2023)
5. Biological resource use	5.1 Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals	Present, but threat severity unknown		In certain places in southern Assam poachers specifically hunt these primates for their skin, hides, bones, skull, etc. (Mazumder 2014). Hunting is ongoing in remote areas of Assam (Chetry pers. comm. 2023).	Ongoing (2023)
	5.2 Gathering terrestrial plants	Present, but threat severity unknown		Exploitation of non-timber forest products such as cane bamboo and ferns (Chetry et al. 2021).	Ongoing (2021)
	5.3 Logging & wood harvesting	High		Illegal logging of certain species, including Uriam Bischoffia javanica, Simalu Bombax ceiba, Halakh Termina lia myriocarpa, and Titasopa Michelia champaca is causing canopy loss and creating fragments within the existing habitats. Exploitation for firewood has also been documented (Chertry et al. 2021). Illegal logging is ongoing (Chetry pers. comm. 2023).	Ongoing (2023)
6. Human intrusion & disturbance		Unknown
7. Natural system modifications	7.2 Dams & water management/use	Unknown		Hydroelectric projects are planned in the area (Chetry pers. comm. 2023).	Ongoing (2023)
8. Invasive & other problematic species, genes, diseases		Unknown
9. Pollution		Unknown
10. Geological Events		Absent
11. Climate change & severe weather		Unknown
12. Other options		Absent

IUCN Threats list

Conservation activities

Table 4. Conservation activities in Assam

Category	Specific activity	Description	Year of activity
1. Residential & commercial development	Not reported
2. Agriculture & aquaculture	Not reported
3. Energy production & mining	Not reported
4. Transportation & service corridors	Not reported
5. Biological resource use	5.6. Conduct regular anti-poaching patrols	Forest department conducts patrols in protected areas in the state of Assam (Chetry pers. comm. 2023).	Ongoing (2023)
6. Human intrusion & disturbance	Not reported
7. Natural system modifications	Not reported
8. Invasive & other problematic species, genes, diseases	Not reported
9. Pollution	Not reported
10. Education & Awareness	10.1. Educate local communities about primates and sustainable use	NGO Aaranyak organizes talks in schools and universities and promotes visits to sanctuaries to see gibbons (Chetry pers. comm. 2023).	Ongoing (2023)
10. Education & Awareness	Other	Aaranyak organizes nature guide training for people in fringe areas, living near forest habitats, as well as capacity building for forest staff (Chetry pers. comm. 2023).	Ongoing (2023)
11. Habitat Protection	Not reported
12. Species Management	Other	Translocation of gibbons from small forest fragments to larger areas by Wild Trust of India and the Forest Department of Arunachal Pradesh (Chetry pers. comm. 2023).	Ongoing (2023)
13. Livelihood; Economic & Other Incentives	13.2. Provide non-monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g. better education, infrastructure development)	Aaranyak supports alternative income generation through the distribution of handlooms, beekeeping and mushroom cultivation training, as well as poultry and ducks (Chetry pers. comm. 2023).	Ongoing (2023)

Conservation activities list (Junker et al. 2017)

Challenges

Lack of long-term funding for continuity of conservation activities and lack of a national gibbon action plan, which exists for other endangered species in the country, but not for gibbons (Chetry pers. comm. 2023).

Table 5. Challenges reported for Assam

Challenge	Source
Lack of long-term funding	Chetry pers. comm. 2023
Lack of national action plan	Chetry pers. comm. 2023

Research activities

Documented behaviours

Table 6. Ape behaviors reported for Assam

Behavior	Source
Not reported

External links

Aaranyak

References

Chetry, D., Phukan, M., Chetry, S., Baruah, B., Deka, J. R., Das, A. K., ... & Bhattacharjee, P. C. (2021). The Eastern Hoolock Gibbon Hoolock leuconedys Population in Assam, India, is on the Verge of Extinction. Primate Conservation, (35).https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.26187.52005
Mazumder, M. K. (2014). Diversity, habitat preferences, and conservation of the primates of southern Assam, India: The story of a primate paradise. Journal of Asia-Pacific Biodiversity, 7(4), 347-354.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.japb.2014.10.001
Sarma, K., Saikia, M. K., Sarania, B., Basumatary, H., Baruah, S. S., Saikia, B. P., ... & Saikia, P. K. (2021). Habitat monitoring and conservation prioritization of Western Hoolock Gibbon in upper Brahmaputra Valley, Assam, India. Scientific reports, 11(1), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-94844-8

Page completed by: Dilip Chetry & A.P.E.S. Wiki team Date: 04/10/2023