Dindefelo
West Africa > Senegal > Dindefelo
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Summary
- Western chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) are present in Dindefelo.
- The population size is unknown.
- The chimpanzee population trend is unknown.
- This site has a total size of 140 km².
- Key threats to chimpanzees is habitat degradation.
- Conservation interventions by the Jane Goodall Institute Spain in Senegal focus on promoting the development of the local human communities and sustainable utilisation of natural resources while reducing negative interactions between humans and chimpanzees in the Kedougou region, mainly in the Commune of Dindefelo, but also in other communes.
- Dindefelo is a Community Nature Reserve managed by the local authorities. It was created in 2010 with the support of JGI Spain in Senegal to foster sustainable development of the local community while protecting flora and fauna.
Site characteristics
Dindefelo (officially called Réserve Naturelle Communautaire de Dindéfélo or Dindefelo Community Nature Reserve) is located in the Kedougou department in southeastern Senegal, along the border with Guinea. Since 2009, the Jane Goodall Institute Spain in Senegal (https://www.janegoodallsenegal.org/conservation-chimpanzee) has conducted research and conservation activities, and a chimpanzee biomonitoring program in the area. The Community Nature Reserve was created by the Rural Council of Dindefelo in 2010 with the support of the JGI Spain in Senegal (Pacheco et al. 2012). The reserve is managed by the Mayor of Dindefelo and representatives of the local communities, with the declared goal of fostering a sustainable use of natural resources and the protection of flora and fauna, particularly chimpanzees. The JGI Spain in Senegal has provided technical assistance to the reserve since its creation. In 2014, the JGI Spain established a permanent biological station (the Dindefelo Biological Station) to conduct research, and implement conservation and education activities. The habitat is a Sudano-Guinean savanna woodland mosaic composed of open (woodland, grassland, shrubland and bamboo) and closed (evergreen gallery forest and dense forest) vegetation types (Pacheco et al. 2012, Enthoven et al. 2017). There are also some agricultural areas and degraded gallery forests (Pacheco et al. 2012). The climate is extremely seasonal, with a dry season lasting seven months. There are six villages and hamlets within and eight surrounding the reserve, where different ethnic groups are present. The majority of people belong to the Peulh and Malinke and the remaining to the Bassari, Bedik, Djallounke and Coniagui. The highest waterfall in Senegal is located in the reserve, which attracts thousands of national and international tourists every year (Camon et al. 2020). Five non-human primate species are present in the reserve: western chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes verus), green monkey (Chlorocebus sabaeus), patas monkey (Erythrocebus patas), lesser bushbaby (Galago senegalensis) and Guinea baboon (Papio papio) (Ramon et al. 2017). In addition, there have been rare sightings of King colobus (Colobus polykomos: Dotras et al. 2022) and Campbell’s monkey (Cercopithecus campbelli: Mirghani et al. in press).
Table 1. Basic site information for Dindefelo
| Species | Pan troglodytes verus |
| Area | 140 km² |
| Coordinates | Lat: 12.377328 , Lon: -12.326048 |
| Type of site | Non-protected area (Community Forest) |
| Habitat types | Savanna, Shrubland, Subtropical/tropical dry forest, Grassland, Agricultural land, Wetlands (lakes, rivers, streams, bogs, marshes) |
| Type of governance |
IUCN habitat categories Site designations
Ape status
A survey of southeastern Senegal established the presence of chimpanzees in what is now the reserve (Pruetz et al. 2002). Since the onset of research and conservation activities implemented by the Jane Goodall Institute Spain in Senegal (https://www.janegoodallsenegal.org/research) chimpanzees are monitored regularly. As part of the Pan African Programme: The Cultured Chimpanzee (PanAf (http://panafrican.eva.mpg.de/)), a systematic survey was implemented and chimpanzee density has been estimated at 0.13 indiv/km² (Wessling et al. 2020). An estimate of the population size has not been published, but a minimum of 53 individual chimpanzees have been identified by direct observation and footage from camera traps since 2017 (JGI Spain in Senegal, unpublished data).
Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for Dindefelo
| Species | Year | Abundance estimate (95% CI) | Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI) | Encounter rate (nests/km) | Area | Method | Source | Comments | A.P.E.S. database ID |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pan troglodytes verus | 2000 | Present | Dindefelo | Reconnaissance walk | Pruetz et al. 2002 | ||||
| Pan troglodytes verus | 2017 | 0.13 | Dindefelo | Line transects | Wessling et al. 2020 | Total survey effort: 73.8 km |
Threats
The main threats to chimpanzees include the clearing of vegetation for agriculture, uncontrolled bushfires and pollution of water sources (Pacheco et al. 2012, Arias et al. 2017, Enthoven et al. 2017). Local people extract the following resources, which include several plant species used by the chimpanzees for food and for nesting: wood (e.g. Cordyla pinnata), charcoal (e.g. Piliostigma thonningii), food (e.g. Saba senegalensis fruit), and medicine (e.g. Pterocarpus erinaceus) (Enthoven et al. 2017, Ramon et al. 2017; Macina et al. 2022; Renelies-Hamilton et al. in press; JGI Spain in Senegal unpublished data). The people also collect dead branches to use as firewood. Due to lack of other options, watercourses are used for bathing and washing clothes and dishes. This causes the pollution of watercourses, as plastic littering and old clothes are thrown away (posing a risk of ingestion by wildlife: Pacheco et al. 2012, Arias et al. 2017) and soap along with human waste remain in the water. Overtapping of palm trees has also been reported (Pacheco et al. 2012). A further concern is the competition between chimpanzees and humans for water during the dry season (JGI Spain in Senegal, unpublished data). Small scale, artisanal gold mining was observed in 2015 in the buffer area of the reserve and in 2020 inside the reserve, but it is currently absent. No evidence of chimpanzee hunting has been found through all the years the JGI Spain in Senegal has been in the area.
Table 3. Threats to apes reported for Dindefelo
| Category | Specific threats | Threat level | Description | Year of threat |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 Residential & commercial development | 1.1 Residential areas | High | Villages and hamlets (Pacheco et al. 2012). New houses are being built across the limit of the reserve in Dindefelo village. | 2012-Ongoing (2020) |
| 1 Residential & commercial development | 1.3 Tourism & recreation areas | Medium | Localized area around visitor centre and pathways leading to the waterfall (Camon et al. 2020) | Ongoing (2019) |
| 2 Agriculture & aquaculture | 2.1 Annual & perennial non-timber crops | High | Agricultural activities (Pacheco et al. 2012) | Ongoing (2012) |
| 2 Agriculture & aquaculture | 2.3 Livestock farming & ranching | High | Livestock grazing | Ongoing |
| 3 Energy production & mining | 3.2 Mining & quarrying | High | Prospection for artisanal gold mining signs encountered in 2015 and 2020, but not since 2021. | 2015, 2020-2021 |
| 4 Transportation & service corridors | 4.1 Roads & railroads | Low | New informal road created between Segou and Affia villages goes through critical chimpanzee habitat. In 2023, the improvement (widening and asphalting) of the Dindefelo-Kedougou road and the Segou-Lougue (Guinea) through Badiari road began. | Ongoing (2023) |
| 4 Transportation & service corridors | 4.2 Utility & service lines | High | In 2021-2022, a high-tension power line was built by the Organisation pour la Mise en Valeur du Fleuve Gambie (OMVG) across the reserve, with deforestation along the line. | 2021-2022 |
| 5 Biological resource use | 5.1 Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals | Medium | Hunting of wildlife (Pacheco et al. 2012) | Ongoing (2012) |
| 5 Biological resource use | 5.2 Gathering terrestrial plants | Medium | Gathering fruits (Ramon et al. 2017) and plant products for medicine and to feed livestock (the latter during the dry season). | Ongoing (2017) |
| 5 Biological resource use | 5.3 Logging & wood harvesting | Medium | Cutting of trees for building and firewood (Pacheco et al. 2012, Arias et al. 2017) | 2012-Ongoing (2017) |
| 6 Human intrusions & disturbance | 6.1 Recreational activities | High | Thousands of tourists visit the waterfall every year, with the possibility of converging with the chimpanzees (Camon et al. 2020). Human waste, leftovers and littering in the gallery forest of the waterfall are common sights. Large groups arrive without control. Regulations should be enforced. The situation will likely get worse after the new paved road from Kedougou to Dindefelo is completed, as well as the Segou-Lougue road. | Ongoing (2019) |
| 7 Natural system modifications | 7.1 Fire & fire suppression | High | Fire used to clear areas for agriculture (Pacheco et al. 2012) | Ongoing (2012) |
| 7 Natural system modifications | 7.2 Dams & water management/use | High | The OMVG Energy Project also includes the construction of a dam (Sambangalou) on the Gambia river, on the eastern border of the reserve, which will flood about 920ha of the reserve. | Ongoing (2023) |
| 8 Invasive & other problematic species, genes & diseases | 8.1 Invasive non-native/alien species | Medium | Dogs; Nature observation trekking in chimpanzee habitat pose safety and security risks (including zoonoses) for tourists and animals if the established protocols are not firmly applied | Ongoing (2018) |
| 9 Pollution | 9.1 Domestic & urban waste water | High | Pollution of watercourses from washing and human waste (Pacheco et al. 2012) | Ongoing (2012) |
| 9 Pollution | 9.4 Garbage & solid waste | Medium | Disposal of plastics and clothes (Pacheco et al. 2012) | Ongoing (2012) |
| 10 Geological events | Low | Geological studies have been carried out by the University of Huelva (Spain) and the Cheikh Anta Diop University of Dakar in order to create a “geopark”. There have been sporadic rock falls in the waterfall area, where tourists go, and land-slides in burnt slopes. | Ongoing (2023) | |
| 11 Climate change & severe weather | Unknown | Suspected, but data not available | ||
| 12 Other threat | Absent |
Conservation activities
Since 2009, the Jane Goodall Institute Spain in Senegal (https://www.janegoodallsenegal.org/biological-station) conducts conservation activities at Dindefelo by promoting reforestation, fire control, food security and resilience to climate change projects, by monitoring chimpanzees and other wildlife, by providing training and employment, and by carrying out environmental education and sensitization actions. In 2010, a Community Nature Reserve was established by the Rural Council in Dindefelo (Pacheco et al. 2012). With the support of the Jane Goodall Institute Spain in Senegal and the USAID/ Wula Nafaa program, a management plan was drawn in 2011 to regulate the management of the area from 2012-2016. This plan included the delimitation of three types of zones: high, medium and low-level protection for chimpanzees (Pacheco et al. 2012). Such zonation was updated for the 2021-2026 DCNR management plan in 2021, working along local authorities and the community. To foster a more sustainable use of natural resources, the JGI Spain in Senegal established and manages tree nurseries of species used for reforestation, creation of buffer zones and food security projects. Another conservation project was carried out to build so-called ‘live fences’, meaning fences around agricultural plots made from living plants, reducing pressure on forests (Pacheco et al. 2012). In addition, to alleviate competition for water sources between chimpanzees and humans, the JGI Spain in Senegal constructed or repaired water wells in several villages, a school and washing facilities. The JGI Spain in Senegal has also trained local people as eco guards and forest monitors of the reserve, equipped them and financed staff salaries for 15 months (2020-2021). In 2013, the JGI Spain in Senegal helped the reserve to regulate ecotourism based on chimpanzee tracking, creating safety and security protocols. This activity was stopped at the onset of the Covid 19 pandemic. When it was proposed by the authorities to resume it in 2021, the JGI Spain in Senegal advised against it. At their insistence, a stricter safety and hygiene protocol was proposed but JGIS staff is no longer involved in this activity. The JGI Spain in Senegal is currently implementing a project to build community resilience to climate change (hereafter BCR project) in 21 villages of four communes. With the support of Global Affairs Canada, this project includes: 1) the creation of cooperatives (Groupement d'intérêt économique in French, GIE), mostly composed of women, and their training in the management of such cooperatives, 2) providing training and equipment for the production of bio charcoal, 3) the mechanical processing of a local, drought-resistant cereal called fonio millet (Digitaria exilis) for consumption or sale, and 4) the creation of eight tree nurseries for the production and planting of wild and domestic trees commonly exploited by people.
Table 4. Conservation activities reported for Dindefelo
| Category | Specific activity | Description | Implementing organization(s) | Year of activity |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 Development impact mitigation | 1.4 Farm more intensively and effectively in selected areas and spare more natural land | Established tree nurseries of crop species for food security, and ‘live fences’ (Pacheco et al. 2012), soil studies and training to improve crop productivity. | 2012-Ongoing (2023) | |
| 2 Counter-wildlife crime | 2.8 Provide training to anti-poaching ranger patrols | Training, equipment and funding of ecoguards, manager and other reserve staff (2020-2021). | 2020-2021 | |
| 2 Counter-wildlife crime | 2.7 Provide better equipment (e.g., guns) to anti-poaching ranger patrols | Training, equipment and funding of ecoguards, manager and other reserve staff (2020-2021). | 2020-2021 | |
| 3 Species health | 3.14 Reduce garbage/human food waste to avoid ape injuries and disease transmission | Establish municipal washing facility to avoid garbage being left close to watercourses (Pacheco et al. 2012); the Yaakar Africa association created and financed a garbage collection and management plan using domestic and public containers. | 2012-Ongoing (2023) | |
| 3 Species health | 3.14 Reduce garbage/human food waste to avoid ape injuries and disease transmission | Sensitization campaigns and collection of batteries and clean-up events by youth groups. | 2016-2019 | |
| 4 Education & awareness | 4.1 Educate local communities about apes and sustainable use | The Roots&Shoots program carried out with local students includes activities of biodiversity and conservation education, and prevention of human-wildlife negative interactions in several villages.Interviews on human-chimpanzee interactions have been carried out in several villages. | 2012-Ongoing (2023) | |
| 4 Education & awareness | 4.1 Educate local communities about apes and sustainable use | Annual camps for about 100 children from different villages within and around the reserve took place from 2016 to 2019. | 2016-2019 | |
| 4 Education & awareness | 4.2 Involve local community in ape research and conservation management | Conservation workshops involving authorities and main stakeholders in the community (2017, 2019 and 2020). | 2017, 2019, 2020 | |
| 4 Education & awareness | 4.2 Involve local community in ape research and conservation management | Community Nature Reserve created by local communities (Pacheco et al. 2012) | 2010-Ongoing (2023) | |
| 4 Education & awareness | 4.5 Implement multimedia campaigns using theatre, film, print media, discussions | Environmental cinema sessions in four villages. Sensitization on the sustainable management of natural resources and on chimpanzee conservation in 12 villages, with distribution of equipment to fight bush-fires | 2017-Ongoing (2023) | |
| 5 Protection & restoration | 5.3 Establish areas for conservation which are not protected by national or international legislation (e.g., private sector standards & codes) | Establishment of the Dindefelo Community Nature Reserve (Pacheco et al. 2012), with Management Plan updated in 2021 | 2010, 2021 | |
| 5 Protection & restoration | 5.4 Create natural habitat patches (including corridors) | Establishment of zones strictly protected for chimpanzees (Pacheco et al. 2012). Firebreaks made in risk areas used by the chimpanzees. Workshops on the prevention and control of bush-fires were carried out for 12 local committees, which were equipped to fight fires (2021). | 2012-Ongoing (2021) | |
| 5 Protection & restoration | 5.6 Habitat restoration | Tree nurseries, planting indigenous tree species in areas used by chimpanzees, reforest buffer zones | Ongoing (2016) | |
| 7 Economic & other incentives | 7.2 Provide non-monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g., better education, infrastructure development) | JGI Spain in Senegal activities have included the construction of water wells, training for farmers, especially groups of women, tourist guides, and owners of camp sites. | 2013-Ongoing (2023) | |
| 7 Economic & other incentives | 7.1 Provide monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g., REDD, alternative income, employment) | JGI Spain in Senegal has created permanent jobs for research and agroforestry assistants, guardians and other staff. It has also created temporary work for other local staff working on agroforestry and firebreak-making. In addition, it purchases local services and materials, including thousands of biodegradable protectors for new trees. | 2013-Ongoing (2023) | |
| 8 Permanent presence | 8.1 Run research project and ensure permanent human presence at site | Biological station established by the JGI Spain. | 2014-Ongoing (2023) | |
| 8 Permanent presence | 8.2 Run tourist projects and ensure permanent human presence at site | Ecotourism project with chimpanzee tracking. | 2013-2021 | |
| 8 Permanent presence | 8.2 Run tourist projects and ensure permanent human presence at site | Ecotourism project without chimpanzee tracking, supported by University of Huelva, a partner of JGI Spain. | 2021-Ongoing (2023) | |
| 8 Permanent presence | 8.3 Permanent presence of staff/manager | Staff permanently present at biological station (JGI Spain 2019) | 2014-Ongoing (2023) |
Conservation activities list (Junker et al. 2017)
Challenges
Main problems for chimpanzee conservation are human population growth, agricultural expansion and lack of water. Since chimpanzees regularly cross the border between Senegal and Guinea, the two countries need to work together to help towards the conservation of these apes.
Table 5. Challenges reported for Dindefelo
| Challenges | Specific challenges | Source | Year(s) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 4 Institutional support | 4.4 Lack of transboundary cooperation |
Enablers
Table 6. Enablers reported for Dindefelo
| Enablers | Specific enablers | Source | Year(s) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 Site management | |||
| 2 Resources and capacity | |||
| 3 Engaged community | |||
| 4 Institutional support | |||
| 5 Ecological context | |||
| 6 Safety and stability |
Research activities
Studies conducted in Dindefelo have considered overlapping resource use by humans and chimpanzees and potential negative interactions between the two species (Ramon et al. 2017, Arias et al. 2017). Other research currently going on in Dindefelo focuses on chimpanzee tool and proto-tool use (Galán-Plana et al. 2022; Sánchez-Megías et al. 2022, in press), chimpanzee nesting behaviour (Enthoven et al. 2017; Macina et al. 2022), chimpanzee dietary diversity (Renelies-Hamilton et al. in press) chimpanzee body size variability (Cardoso et al. 2022), presence of other primates in the reserve (Dotras et al. 2022; Mirghani et al. in press) and the distribution of large and medium mammal species in the reserve (Mirghani et al. 2023).
Documented behaviours
Table 7. Behaviours documented for Dindefelo
| Behavior | Source |
|---|---|
| Algae fishing | Kühl et al. 2019 |
| Ant dipping | Kühl et al. 2019; Sánchez-Megías et al. 2022, in press |
| Ant eating | Kühl et al. 2019 |
| Ant eating without tools | Kühl et al. 2019 |
| Cave use | Kühl et al. 2019, Marcos Nistal et al. 2022 |
| Termite eating | Kühl et al. 2019 |
| Termite fishing | Kühl et al. 2019; Boesch et al. 2020 |
| Baobab pounding | Galán-Plana et al. 2022 |
Exposure to climate change impacts
External links
Relevant datasets
References
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