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= Summary = <!-- An overview of the site, with one sentence for each section. May include a site map -->

= Summary = <!-- An overview of the site, with one sentence for each section. May include a site map -->

[[File: Landscape_in_the_Budongo-Bugoma_region_(photo_by_Jack_Lester)_2.jpg | 400px | thumb| right | Landscape in the Budongo-Bugoma region © Jack Lester]]

[[File: Landscape_in_the_Budongo-Bugoma_region_(photo_by_Jack_Lester)_2.jpg | 300px | thumb| right | Landscape in the Budongo-Bugoma region © Jack Lester]]

* Eastern chimpanzees (''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii'') are present in Budongo-Bugoma corridor.

* Eastern chimpanzees (''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii'') are present in Budongo-Bugoma corridor.

* It has been estimated that 256 (246-321) individuals occur in the site.

* It has been estimated that 256 (246-321) individuals occur in the site.

* The chimpanzee population trend is decreasing.

* The chimpanzee population trend is decreasing.

* The total area of the site is >1000 km².

* The total area of the site is >1000 km².

* Chimpanzees are mainly threatened by habitat loss as a result of agricultural expansion.

* Chimpanzees are mainly threatened by habitat loss as a result of agricultural expansion. Other threats include human-chimpanzee conflict, construction of roads, and diseases.

* Conservation activities have focused on improving livelihoods of local people and conserving and enriching remaining natural forest. Other threats include human-chimpanzee conflict, construction of roads, and diseases.

* Conservation activities have focused on improving livelihoods of local people and conserving and enriching remaining natural forest. * The site links the chimpanzee populations of [[Bugoma Central Forest Reserve]] and [[Budongo Central Forest Reserve]]

* The site links the chimpanzee populations of [[Bugoma Central Forest Reserve]] and [[Budongo Central Forest Reserve]]

= Site characteristics = <!-- A paragraph summary of physical and geographic aspects of the site, and a table of key information -->

= Site characteristics = <!-- A paragraph summary of physical and geographic aspects of the site, and a table of key information -->

[[File: Budongo-Bugoma Corridor Region Forest Cover (modified from McCarthy et al., 2015)_2.jpg | 350px | thumb| right | Budongo-Bugoma Corridor Region Forest Cover (modified from McCarthy et al., 2015)]]

[[File: Budongo-Bugoma Corridor Region Forest Cover (modified from McCarthy et al., 2015)_2.jpg | 320px | thumb| right | Budongo-Bugoma Corridor Region Forest Cover (modified from McCarthy et al., 2015)]]

Located in the Western Region of Uganda, the 'Budongo-Bugoma corridor' refers to a landscape that links chimpanzee populations in two large protected areas, Budongo and Bugoma Central Forest Reserves, which are separated by 50 km. The intervening 'corridor' is dominated by household and commercial agriculture and agroforestry plantations, villages and urbanizing areas. Most natural forest in the corridor was converted to farmland and other land uses since the 1990s (McLennan 2008; Twongyirwe et al. 2015). However, small fragments of degraded riparian forest remain along watercourses and around Papyrus swamps. These remnant forest patches offer some cover for the region's chimpanzees, which range within a landscape dominated by farmland, villages, plantations and the outskirts of urban areas (McLennan 2008; McCarthy et al. 2017; McLennan et al. 2021). The Budongo–Bugoma corridor was recognized as an important ‘Chimpanzee Conservation Unit’ in the 2010–2020 IUCN conservation action plan for eastern chimpanzees (Plumptre et al. 2010).

Located in the Western Region of Uganda, the 'Budongo-Bugoma corridor' refers to a landscape that links chimpanzee populations in two large protected areas, Budongo and Bugoma Central Forest Reserves, which are separated by 50 km. The intervening 'corridor' is dominated by household and commercial agriculture and agroforestry plantations, villages and urbanizing areas. Most natural forest in the corridor was converted to farmland and other land uses since the 1990s (McLennan 2008; Twongyirwe et al. 2015). However, small fragments of degraded riparian forest remain along watercourses and around Papyrus swamps. These remnant forest patches offer some cover for the region's chimpanzees, which range within a landscape dominated by farmland, villages, plantations and the outskirts of urban areas (McLennan 2008; McCarthy et al. 2017; McLennan et al. 2021). The Budongo–Bugoma corridor was recognized as an important ‘Chimpanzee Conservation Unit’ in the 2010–2020 IUCN conservation action plan for eastern chimpanzees (Plumptre et al. 2010).

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[https://www.iucnredlist.org/resources/habitat-classification-scheme IUCN habitat categories] [[Site designations]]

[https://www.iucnredlist.org/resources/habitat-classification-scheme IUCN habitat categories] [[Site designations]]

[[File: Chimpanzee communities in the Budongo-Bugoma Corridor (modified from McCarthy et al., 2018)_2.jpg | 400px | thumb| right | Chimpanzee communities in the Budongo-Bugoma Corridor (modified from McCarthy et al., 2018)]]

[[File: Chimpanzee communities in the Budongo-Bugoma Corridor (modified from McCarthy et al., 2018)_2.jpg | 350px | thumb| right | Chimpanzee communities in the Budongo-Bugoma Corridor (modified from McCarthy et al., 2018)]]

= Ape status = <!--An overview of ape population status (population sizes, trends, etc.), followed by a table of specific surveys and results -->

= Ape status = <!--An overview of ape population status (population sizes, trends, etc.), followed by a table of specific surveys and results -->

Despite its name, the Budongo-Bugoma corridor is not a migratory corridor for chimpanzees travelling between the Budongo and Bugoma Forests. A regional survey by McLennan (2008) showed that chimpanzees were resident and widely distributed throughout the corridor landscape. Based on an extrapolation of chimpanzee density for one resident community within the corridor, Bulindi, McLennan estimated a total regional population of 260 individuals. A genetic mark-recapture study conducted in 2012-2013 confirmed this approximate population size distributed broadly throughout a network of mostly unprotected forest fragments between the Budongo and Bugoma Forests (McCarthy et al., 2015). The population comprises nine or more resident chimpanzee communities (McCarthy et al. 2015, 2018). More recent work in this region has indicated declines in some of the community-specific abundance estimates reported by McCarthy and colleagues (BCCP, unpublished data).

Despite its name, the Budongo-Bugoma corridor is not a migratory corridor for chimpanzees travelling between the Budongo and Bugoma Forests. A regional survey by McLennan (2008) showed that chimpanzees were resident and widely distributed throughout the corridor landscape. Based on an extrapolation of chimpanzee density for one resident community within the corridor, [[Bulindi]], McLennan estimated a total regional population of 260 individuals. A genetic mark-recapture study conducted in 2012-2013 confirmed this approximate population size distributed broadly throughout a network of mostly unprotected forest fragments between the Budongo and Bugoma Forests (McCarthy et al., 2015). The population comprises nine or more resident chimpanzee communities (McCarthy et al. 2015, 2018). More recent work in this region has indicated declines in some of the community-specific abundance estimates reported by McCarthy and colleagues (BCCP, unpublished data).

'''Table 2. Ape population estimates in Budongo-Bugoma corridor'''

'''Table 2. Ape population estimates in Budongo-Bugoma corridor'''

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|1. Residential & commercial development

|1. Residential & commercial development

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|Absent

|Hoima City - a fast-expanding urban centre, which was elevated from town to city status in 2020 - is situated in the centre of the Budongo-Bugoma corridor. The ranges of at least two chimpanzee communities reach the peri-urban outskirts of the city, including areas earmarked for industrialisation (McLennan et al. 2021).

|Ongoing (2021)

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|2. Agriculture & aquaculture

|2. Agriculture & aquaculture

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|5. Biological resource use

|5. Biological resource use

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|Absent

|Unregulated commercial logging, i.e. local landowners sell trees to timber dealers, and then clear the land for farming. Residents also cut trees for firewood and to produce charcoal (BCCP, unpublished data).

|Ongoing (2020)

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|6. Human intrusion & disturbance

|6. Human intrusion & disturbance

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|Absent

|Chimpanzees throughout the Budongo-Bugoma corridor encounter people working in gardens and agricultural fields, or engaged in other work activities (e.g. house building, carpentry, cattle herding), on a daily basis.

|Ongoing (2020)

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|7. Natural system modifications

|7. Natural system modifications

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|9. Pollution

|9. Pollution

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|Absent

|Water sources in the range of at least 1 chimpanzee community are severely contaminated with waste effluent (sugarcane molasses) from a large commercial distillery (McLennan et al., 2021). Local farmers commonly use inorganic herbicides and pesticides; potential impacts on the chimpanzees are not yet known.

|Ongoing (2020)

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|10. Geological Events

|10. Geological Events

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|2. Agriculture & aquaculture

|2. Agriculture & aquaculture

|Not reported

|2.11. Farm more intensively and effectively in selected areas and spare more natural land

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|BCCP has a coffee growing alternative livelihood project, providing coffee seedlings to farmers and guidance on 'best practice' coffee farming. Unlike other cash crops (e.g. tobacco, rice and sugarcane), coffee is 'chimpanzee friendly' because farmers establish coffee in existing gardens rather than cutting new gardens in forest or wetlands, and chimpanzees and other primates do not eat from the coffee plant. Coffee matures after 2-3 years and the harvest can contribute significantly to household incomes (BCCP 2020).

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|Ongoing (2020)

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|3. Energy production & mining

|3. Energy production & mining

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|8. Invasive & other problematic species, genes, diseases

|8. Invasive & other problematic species, genes, diseases

|Not reported

|8.7. Wear face-masks to avoid transmission of viral and bacterial diseases to primates

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|Strict use of face masks and hand sanitisers by researchers and local 'Chimpanzee Monitors' entering forest areas, and when in proximity to chimpanzees; bespoke health and hygiene training provided to all staff (BCCP, unpublished data).

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|Ongoing (2020)

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|9. Pollution

|9. Pollution

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|10. Education & Awareness  

|10. Education & Awareness  

|Not reported

|10.1. Educate local communities about primates and sustainable use

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|BCCP implements a conservation outreach programme in villages throughout the Budongo-Bugoma corridor. The aim is to provide accurate information to residents about chimpanzees and related environmental issues, answer questions and address misconceptions, mitigate conflicts, and directly address concerns people have about living near chimpanzees.

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|Ongoing (2020)

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|11. Habitat Protection

|11. Habitat Protection

|Not reported

|11.5. Create/protect forest patches in highly fragmented landscapes

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|BCCP works with local landowners to increase their capacity to conserve patches of natural forest that offer critical remaining habitat for chimpanzees. Assistance includes sponsoring schoolchildren, alternative livelihoods support, and establishment of formal associations of private forest owners.

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|Ongoing (2020)

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|12. Species Management

|12. Species Management

= Research activities = <!-- Overview of research activities -->

= Research activities = <!-- Overview of research activities -->

Several resident chimpanzee communities within the Budongo-Bugoma corridor are subjects of ongoing research and monitoring (BCCP 2020), including the long-term Bulindi study community (e.g. McLennan et al. 2019b). Other communities under study include the Kasokwa-Kityedo (Reynolds et al. 2003), Kasongoire (Oxley 2019), Wagaisa (McCarthy et al. 2017; McLennan et al. 2021) and Mairirwe (McLennan et al. 2019a) communities. Locations of these communities are shown in McCarthy et al. (2015, 2018).

Several resident chimpanzee communities within the Budongo-Bugoma corridor are subjects of ongoing research and monitoring (BCCP 2020), including the long-term [[Bulindi]] study community (e.g. McLennan et al. 2019b). Other communities under study include the Kasokwa-Kityedo (Reynolds et al. 2003), Kasongoire (Oxley 2019), Wagaisa (McCarthy et al. 2017; McLennan et al. 2021) and Mairirwe (McLennan et al. 2019a) communities. Locations of these communities are shown in McCarthy et al. (2015, 2018).

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<li style="display: inline-block;"> [[File: Male chimpanzee in a pine tree in the Wagaisa area (photo by Jack Lester)_2.jpg | 350px | thumb| right | Male chimpanzee in a pine tree in the Wagaisa area (photo by Jack Lester)]]

<li style="display: inline-block;"> [[File: Male chimpanzee in a pine tree in the Wagaisa area (photo by Jack Lester)_2.jpg | 350px | thumb| right | Male chimpanzee in a pine tree in the Wagaisa area (photo by Jack Lester)]]

BCCP. (2020). 2019 Annual Report to Friends & Funders. Bulindi Chimpanzee and Community Project, Hoima, Uganda. <br>

BCCP. (2020). 2019 Annual Report to Friends & Funders. Bulindi Chimpanzee and Community Project, Hoima, Uganda. <br>

Cibot, M., Le Roux, S., Rohen, J., & McLennan, M.R. (2019). Death of a trapped chimpanzee: survival and conservation of great apes in unprotected agricultural areas of Uganda. African Primates 13, 47-56. <br>

Cibot, M., Le Roux, S., Rohen, J., & McLennan, M.R. (2019). Death of a trapped chimpanzee: survival and conservation of great apes in unprotected agricultural areas of Uganda. African Primates 13, 47-56. <br>

McCarthy, M. S., Lester, J. D., Howe, E. J., Arandjelovic, M., Stanford, C. B., & Vigilant, L. (2015). Genetic censusing identifies an unexpectedly sizeable population of an endangered large mammal in a fragmented forest landscape. BMC Ecology, 15(1), 21. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12898-015-0052-x <br>

McCarthy, M. S., Lester, J. D., Howe, E. J., Arandjelovic, M., Stanford, C. B., & Vigilant, L. (2015). Genetic censusing identifies an unexpectedly sizable population of an endangered large mammal in a fragmented forest landscape. BMC Ecology, 15(1), 21. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12898-015-0052-x <br>

McCarthy, M. S., Lester, J. D., & Stanford, C. B. (2017). Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) flexibly use introduced species for nesting and bark feeding in a human-dominated habitat. International Journal of Primatology, 38(2), 321-337. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10764-016-9916-y <br>

McCarthy, M. S., Lester, J. D., & Stanford, C. B. (2017). Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) flexibly use introduced species for nesting and bark feeding in a human-dominated habitat. International Journal of Primatology, 38(2), 321-337. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10764-016-9916-y <br>

McCarthy, M. S., Lester, J. D., Langergraber, K. E., Stanford, C. B., & Vigilant, L. (2018). Genetic analysis suggests dispersal among chimpanzees in a fragmented forest landscape in Uganda. American Journal of Primatology, 80(9), e22902. <br>

McCarthy, M. S., Lester, J. D., Langergraber, K. E., Stanford, C. B., & Vigilant, L. (2018). Genetic analysis suggests dispersal among chimpanzees in a fragmented forest landscape in Uganda. American Journal of Primatology, 80(9), e22902. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.22902 <br>

McLennan, M.R. (2008). Beleaguered chimpanzees in the agricultural district of Hoima, Western Uganda. Primate Conservation 23, 45–54. <br>

McLennan, M.R. (2008). Beleaguered chimpanzees in the agricultural district of Hoima, Western Uganda. Primate Conservation 23, 45–54. https://doi.org/10.1896/052.023.0105 <br>

McLennan, M.R. & Asiimwe, C. (2016). Cars kill chimpanzees: case report of a wild chimpanzee killed on a road at Bulindi, Uganda. Primates 57, 377-388. <br>

McLennan, M.R. & Asiimwe, C. (2016). Cars kill chimpanzees: case report of a wild chimpanzee killed on a road at Bulindi, Uganda. Primates 57, 377-388. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10329-016-0528-0 <br>

McLennan, M.R., Hasegawa, H., Bardi, M., & Huffman, M.A. (2017). Gastrointestinal parasite infections and self-medication in wild chimpanzees surviving in degraded forest fragments within an agricultural landscape mosaic in Uganda. PLoS ONE 12, e0180431. <br>

McLennan, M.R., Hasegawa, H., Bardi, M., & Huffman, M.A. (2017). Gastrointestinal parasite infections and self-medication in wild chimpanzees surviving in degraded forest fragments within an agricultural landscape mosaic in Uganda. PLoS ONE 12, e0180431. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0180431 <br>

McLennan, M.R. & Hill, C.M. (2012). Troublesome neighbours: changing attitudes towards chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) in a human-dominated landscape in Uganda. Journal for Nature Conservation 20, 219-227. <br>

McLennan, M.R. & Hill, C.M. (2012). Troublesome neighbours: changing attitudes towards chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) in a human-dominated landscape in Uganda. Journal for Nature Conservation 20, 219-227. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnc.2012.03.002 <br>

McLennan, M.R. & Hill, C.M. (2015). Changing agricultural practices and human-chimpanzee interactions: tobacco and sugarcane  farming in and around Bulindi, Uganda. In: Arcus Foundation, ed. State of the Apes Volume II: Industrial Agriculture and Ape Conservation. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. <br>

McLennan, M.R. & Hill, C.M. (2015). Changing agricultural practices and human-chimpanzee interactions: tobacco and sugarcane  farming in and around Bulindi, Uganda. In: Arcus Foundation, ed. State of the Apes Volume II: Industrial Agriculture and Ape Conservation. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. <br>

McLennan, M. R., Hintz, B., Kiiza, V., Rohen, J., Lorenti, G. A., & Hockings, K. J. (2021). Surviving at the extreme: chimpanzee ranging is not restricted in a deforested human‐dominated landscape in Uganda. African Journal of Ecology, https://doi.org/10.1111/aje.12803 <br>

McLennan, M. R., Hintz, B., Kiiza, V., Rohen, J., Lorenti, G. A., & Hockings, K. J. (2021). Surviving at the extreme: chimpanzee ranging is not restricted in a deforested human‐dominated landscape in Uganda. African Journal of Ecology, https://doi.org/10.1111/aje.12803 <br>

McLennan, M. R., Hyeroba, D., Asiimwe, C., Reynolds, V., & Wallis, J. (2012). Chimpanzees in mantraps: lethal crop protection and conservation in Uganda. Oryx, 46(4), 598-603. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605312000592 <br>

McLennan, M. R., Hyeroba, D., Asiimwe, C., Reynolds, V., & Wallis, J. (2012). Chimpanzees in mantraps: lethal crop protection and conservation in Uganda. Oryx, 46(4), 598-603. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605312000592 <br>

McLennan, M.R., Lorenti, G.A., Mugenyi, S., Muganzi, J., & Rohen, J. (2019a). Digging for clues: stick tools used for honey digging in a second community of ‘forest fragment chimpanzees’ outside the Budongo and Bugoma Forests, Uganda. Revue de Primatologie, 10, https://doi.org/10.4000/primatologie.6718 <br>

McLennan, M.R., Lorenti, G.A., Mugenyi, S., Muganzi, J., & Rohen, J. (2019a). Digging for clues: stick tools used for honey digging in a second community of ‘forest fragment chimpanzees’ outside the Budongo and Bugoma Forests, Uganda. Revue de Primatologie, 10, https://doi.org/10.4000/primatologie.6718 <br>

McLennan, M.R., Mori, H., Mahittikorn, A., Prasertbun, R., Hagiwara, K., & Huffman, M.A. (2018). Zoonotic enterobacterial pathogens detected in wild chimpanzees. Ecohealth 15, 143-147. <br>

McLennan, M.R., Mori, H., Mahittikorn, A., Prasertbun, R., Hagiwara, K., & Huffman, M.A. (2018). Zoonotic enterobacterial pathogens detected in wild chimpanzees. Ecohealth 15, 143-147. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10393-017-1303-4 <br>

McLennan, M.R., Rohen, J., Satsias, Z., Sabiiti, T., Baruzaliire, J.-M., & Cibot, M. (2019b). ‘Customary’ use of stick tools by chimpanzees in Bulindi, Uganda: update and analysis of digging techniques from behavioural observations. Revue de Primatologie, 10, https://doi.org/10.4000/primatologie.6706 <br>

McLennan, M.R., Rohen, J., Satsias, Z., Sabiiti, T., Baruzaliire, J.-M., & Cibot, M. (2019b). ‘Customary’ use of stick tools by chimpanzees in Bulindi, Uganda: update and analysis of digging techniques from behavioural observations. Revue de Primatologie, 10, https://doi.org/10.4000/primatologie.6706 <br>

Oxley, A. S. (2019). Great ape conservation in the matrix: Investigating the socio-ecological responses of chimpanzees living in a forest–farm mosaic, Uganda. Oxford Brookes University, UK (unpublished doctoral dissertation) <br>

Oxley, A. S. (2019). Great ape conservation in the matrix: Investigating the socio-ecological responses of chimpanzees living in a forest–farm mosaic, Uganda. Oxford Brookes University, UK (unpublished doctoral dissertation) <br>

Plumptre, A.J. et al. (2010). Eastern Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii): Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan, 2010-2020. IUCN, Switzerland. <br>

Plumptre, A.J. et al. (2010). Eastern Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii): Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan, 2010-2020. IUCN, Switzerland. <br>

Reynolds, V., Wallis, J., & Kyamanywa, R. (2003). Fragments, sugar, and chimpanzees in Masindi District, western Uganda. In L. K. Marsh (Ed.), Primates in fragments: Ecology and conservation (pp. 309–320). USA: Springer. <br>

Reynolds, V., Wallis, J., & Kyamanywa, R. (2003). Fragments, sugar, and chimpanzees in Masindi District, western Uganda. In L. K. Marsh (Ed.), Primates in fragments: Ecology and conservation (pp. 309–320). USA: Springer. <br>

Twongyirwe, R., Bithell, M., Richards, K. S., & Rees, W. G. (2015). Three decades of forest cover change in Uganda’s Northern Albertine Rift Landscape. Land Use Policy, 49, 236-251. <br>

Twongyirwe, R., Bithell, M., Richards, K. S., & Rees, W. G. (2015). Three decades of forest cover change in Uganda’s Northern Albertine Rift Landscape. Land Use Policy, 49, 236-251. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2015.07.013 <br>

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'''Page completed by: '''Matthew McLennan, Maureen McCarthy & Jack Lester''' Date:''' 23/12/2020 <!-- If you don't want to add your name, you can add "A.P.E.S. Wiki team" -->

'''Page completed by: '''Matthew McLennan, Maureen McCarthy & Jack Lester''' Date:''' 14/01/2021 <!-- If you don't want to add your name, you can add "A.P.E.S. Wiki team" -->