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[[West Africa]] > [[Guinea-Bissau]] > [[Boé Sector]]
= Summary = <!-- An overview of the site, with a one sentence overview of each of the following sections. can include a site map -->
<div style="float: right">
{{#display_map: height=240px | width=320px | scrollzoom=off | zoom=7 | layers= OpenStreetMap, OpenTopoMap
|11.752282, -14.008097~[[Boé Sector]]~Western Chimpanzee
}}
</div>
* Western chimpanzees (''Pan troglodytes verus'') are present in the Boé Sector.
* It is estimated that approximately 1500 individuals occur at the site.
* The chimpanzee population trend is estimated to be stable.
* This site has a total size of over 3,289 km².
* Key threats to chimpanzees are habitat conversion and a bauxite mining concession.
* The following conservation activities were conducted by Chimbo Foundation: involve the local community in primate research and conservation management; integrate religion/local taboos into conservation; conservation awareness; education.
* Boé Sector partly overlaps Dulombi National Park and Boé National Park.
= Site characteristics = <!-- A paragraph summary of physical and geographic aspects of the site, and a table of key information -->
The Boé Sector covers 3,289 km2; in it, Boé National Park and Dulombi National Park are partly embedded (Wit & Reintjes 1989). The Boé Sector is the most north-westerly part of the Fouta Djallon massive in Guinea (Conakry). The south eastern part of Dulombi National Park is the part of the Boé Sector west of the river Corubal, which can only be crossed by chimpanzees towards the end of the dry season.The landscape consists of flat plateaus with wooden Savanna vegetation (van der Meer 2014). Relatively narrow, shallow river valleys with often steep shorelines are found within this plateaus. Old secondary and often slightly disturbed forest is found further from the river channels (White & Edwards 2000). Along the rivers or streams, gallery forest and isolated savanna vegetation is growing. Here, under constant water supply, the greatest species diversity is found. Furthermore, the origin of the rivers are often designated as a sacred place by the people and thus have a low human activity (White & Edwards 2000, Silva et al. 2007, Koops et al. 2012, van der Meer 2014, Ramachandra 2017). Cultivated land, such as cashew tree plantations and cultivated fields of rice, peanuts, maize, sorghum, and millet are expanding steadily. The climate is tropical, with an annual mean temperature of 28°C and annual rainfall of c. 1,500-1,750 mm (USGS, n.d.). The Boé Sector is located in the tropical dry forest climate zone. Daytime temperatures range between 30-33°C while nighttime temperatures vary from 18-23°C. It hardly ever rains from December to April and it is very wet from June through October. The area is sparsely populated, with around 12,000 people living in 85 villages, and still relatively well preserved. The region has contiguous habitats and it is considered to be a very important area for chimpanzees (''Pan troglodytes verus'') in West Africa (Van der Meer 2014).
'''Table 1. Basic site information for Boé Sector'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="basic-information"
|Area <!-- Please include units: km2/ha e.g 200ha -->
|3,289 km²
|-
|Coordinates
|11.752282, -14.008097
|-
|Designation <!-- National Park, Nature Reserve, etc. -->
|Administrative unit, partly overlaps with national parks
|-
|Habitat types <!-- List IUCN Habitat Classification 3.0 categories present (Without number), see link below -->
|Moist Savanna, Subtropical/Tropical Moist Lowland Forest (Gallery forest), Plantations
|}
https://www.iucnredlist.org/resources/habitat-classification-scheme IUCN habitat categories] [[Site designations]]
= Ape status = <!-- a text overview of ape status (population sizes, trends etc), followed by a table of specific surveys and results -->
The only estimate for the whole site available is 1000-1500 individuals and a density of 2.4 individuals/km2 (Serra et al. 2007). A chimpanzee nest survey along the Quebube River found 1800 nests in an area of 10km2 (Hoogveld 2013). Based on observations and data collected between 2011 and 2016 in the territories of Dijifilm and Paramanguel, which are also part of Dulombi National Park, the average group size was about 7, but groups up to 19 animals have been observed. It is possible that at least 25 to 30 chimpanzees are present in the territories of Djifim and Paramanguel (Wit, P. & Goedmakers, A. pers. comm. 2022).
'''Table 2. Great ape population estimates in Boé Sector'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="population-estimate-table"
! Species
! Year
! Abundance estimate (95% confidence interval)
! Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI)
! Encounter rate (nests/km)
! Area
! Method
! Source
! Comments
! A.P.E.S. database ID
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2006
|710
|2.4
|
|Boé Sector
|Interview method
|Serra, Silva, & Lopes 2007
|29 non-systematically placed points
|
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2013
|44 (16-120)
|2.02 (0.75-5.45)
|11.37
|Southeastern part of Boé Sector (Ronde Hill, gallery forests of Paramaka and Jabere rivers)
|Line transects (Distance), index survey, presence-absence sampling
|Wenceslau 2014
|Line transect total survey effort: 100 km; Camera traps identified at least 22 individuals, reconnaissance walk
|
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2016
|80 (46–140)
|0.77 (0.45-1.34)
|3.519
|Béli village in Boé Sector (104 km²)
|Line transects (Distance)
|Binczik et al. 2017
|Total survey effort: 39 km, based on the results 1,465-4,415 chimpanzees are estimated for the whole Boé Sector
|
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2011-2016
|25-30
|
|
|Territories of Djifilm and Paramanguel, approx. 80 sq. km
|Other
|Wit, P. & Goedmakers, A. pers. comm. 2022
|Based on patrols by community members.
|
|}
= Threats = <!-- a text overview of threats, followed by a table of key threats -->
Chimpanzees in the Boé Sector in Guinea-Bissau are mainly threatened by habitat loss, fragmentation and degradation. Forests being cleared by farmers for shifting cultivation practices, mainly for rice and maize farming and cashew plantations (Wit & Reintjes 1989). The gallery forests and intact tree populations remain almost exclusively on steep slopes of river valleys with difficult access. Due to the high population growth in Guinea-Bissau (annual rate 2.44 %) new villages in the central region of Boé were established and increased the pressure on the already limited areas of intact forests (Chimbo Foundation 2015). Overall, the local culture inhabits pro environmental habits. The attitude towards primates among the local communities in Boé is in general positive (Hockings & Humle 2009). Hunting of primates is rare because of religious taboos (van Laar 2010) and some parts of the gallery forest, mostly around headwaters, are protected by traditional beliefs (White & Edwards 2000; Silva et al. 2007; Koops et al. 2012; van der Meer 2014). The ongoing loss of traditions and of respect for traditional institutions presents a threat to the survival of Boé’s cultural heritage and natural resource base. One of the Bauxite mining concessions is situated at the middle course of Jabere river, neighbouring an area occupied by chimpanzees during the dry season. Effects on the populations are expected, because: 1) this site provides during the dry season one of the few places with permanent water availability, 2) water pollution in consequence by the mining operations, by the workers and washouts of sediments, (3) Noise pollution through explosions, heavy machinery and roads (Wenceslau 2014). Furthermore, an influx of workers could disturb the local culture and increase the pressure on the already limited resources available (Wenceslau 2014). Bush fires are occurring, sometimes due to fire setting by the Boenques, cattle herders in great part coming from Guinea (Wenceslau, 2014), or on purpose by hunters, but also negligence of farmers and fishermen. During the late dry season herders burn grasslands. After the whole north flank of Ronde Hill was burned by a Boenque family, destroying an area of at least 300 ha, no new chimpanzee nests were spotted on the affected areas (Wenceslau 2014). Burning for opening an agricultural area is restricted to the plantation field but may spread easily.Cattle herders are in higher numbers and more permanently settling in remote areas that were relatively undisturbed before their arrival (Goedmakers pers. comm. 2022).
'''Table 3. Threats to great apes in Boé Sector'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="threats-table"
!align="left"|Category <!-- Do not change threat categories -->
!Specific threats <!-- For specific threats, please use list of comma separated keywords from the list linked below -->
!Threat level <!-- For threat level, please use keywords: unknown, low, high -->
!Quantified severity <!-- e.g., encounter rate, number of miners etc. (with reference)-->
!Description <!-- You can add descriptive information here -->
!Year of threat <!-- if ongoing or unknown add year of reference in brackets-->
|-
|1. Residential & commercial development
|1.1 Housing & Urban Areas
|Low
|
|New villages were established (Chimbo Foundation 2015)
|Ongoing (2015)
|-
|
|1.1 Housing & Urban Areas
|Medium
|Settling of cattle owners with their herds; about 60 families with 7000 head of cattle.
|Settlements in remote areas cause disturbances since the 1990s (Goedmakers pers. comm. 2022).
|Ongoing (2022)
|-
|2. Agriculture & aquaculture
|2.1 Annual & Perennial Non-Timber Crops
|Low
|
|2.1.2 Small-holder Farming (Chimbo Foundation 2015)
|Ongoing (2015)
|-
|
|2.1 Annual & Perennial Non-Timber Crops
|Medium
|70 ha of forest converted to cashew plantations between 2016 and 2020.
|Cashew plantations increasing in area (Van der Hoeven 2020).
|Ongoing (2020)
|-
|
|2.3 Livestock farming & ranching
|Medium
|
|Temporary cattle camps at remote places; about 1/3 of cattle people are transhumant (Goedmakers pers. comm. 2022).
|Ongoing (2022)
|-
|3. Energy production & mining
|3.2. Mining & Quarrying
|High
|
|Bauxite ming sites are planned next to chimpanzee populations (Wenceslau 2014)
|Planned
|-
|4. Transportation & service corridors
|
|Absent
|
|
|
|-
|5. Biological resource use
|5.1 Hunting & Collecting Terrestrial Animals
|Low
|
|Hunting of chimpanzees is rare in Boé because of religious taboos (van Laar 2010).
|Ongoing (2010)
|-
|6. Human intrusions & disturbance
|
|Absent
|
|
|
|-
|7. Natural system modifications
|7.1 Fire & Fire Suppression
|High
|300 ha burned in 2013
|Herding practices may provoke fast spreading and uncontrollable wildfires (Wenceslau 2014). But also farmers, hunters and fishermen may cause harmful bushfires.
|Ongoing (2014)
|-
|8. Invasive & other problematic species, genes, diseases
|
|Unknown
|
|
|
|-
|9. Pollution
|
|Absent
|
|
|
|-
|10. Geological Events
|
|Absent
|
|
|
|-
| 11. Climate change & severe weather
|
|Unknown
|
|
|
|-
|12. Other options
|
|Absent
|
|
|
|-
|}
[https://www.iucnredlist.org/resources/threat-classification-scheme IUCN Threats list]
= Conservation activities = <!-- a text overview of conservation activities, followed by a table of key activities -->
IBAP (The Institute for Biodiversity and Protected Areas) established a National Park (PNB) and Wildlife Corridors in part of the Boé Sector east of the river Corubal and a National Park (PND) in the part of the Boé Sector west of the river Corubal. The Chimbo Foundation together with its local sister organization Daridibó executes a program of community-based sustainable conservation in the Boé, creating synergy between conservation and development (Chimbo Foundation 2018). The long-term objective of this programme is to guarantee the long-term survival of the western chimpanzee population in the Boé through community-based conservation. Chimbo works with 28 Village Vigilance Committees and 40 village Fire Brigades. 178 sacred sites are mapped by Chimbo and registered as ICCA’s. Students and visiting researchers work on different aspects of integrated conservation: inventories of flora and fauna, socio-ecological surveys, etc. Since 2021 ARCUS finances a program to identify “drumming trees” aiming to increase their protection by the local population. The development of ecotourism in the Boé Sector has started in 2012.
'''Table 4. Conservation activities in Boé Sector'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="conservation-actions-table"
!align="left"|Category <!-- Do not change threat categories -->
!Specific activity <!-- For specific threats, please use list of comma separated keywords from the list linked below -->
!Description <!-- You can add descriptive information here -->
!Year of activity <!-- if ongoing or unknown add year of reference in brackets -->
|-
|1. Residential & commercial development
|Other
|Inventory of herdsmen to estimate numbers of settlements and reasons why they came to and settled in Boé (Goedmakers pers. comm. 2022).
|2022
|-
|2. Agriculture & aquaculture
|Other
|Since 2008, improved slash-and-burn practices; respect of larger trees; use of green manure (Goedmakers pers. comm. 2022).
|Ongoing (2022)
|-
|3. Energy production & mining
|Not reported
|
|
|-
|4. Transportation & service corridors
|Not reported
|
|
|-
|5. Biological resource use
|5.6. Conduct regular anti-poaching patrols
|IBAP implements patrols and Chimbo works with 28 village committee who do patrols (Chimbo Foundation 2019).
|Ongoing (2019)
|-
|
|5.16. Implement community control of patrolling, banning hunting and removing snares
|Chimbo works with 28 village committee who implement patrols (Chimbo Foundation 2019).
|Ongoing (2019)
|-
|6. Human intrusions & disturbance
|Other
|Conservation awareness raising among herdsmen (Goedmakers pers. comm. 2022).
|Ongoing (2022)
|-
|7. Natural system modifications
|7.2. Protect important food/nest trees before burning
|Early fire program to protect forest (Chimbo Foundation 2019)
|Ongoing (2019)
|-
|8. Invasive & other problematic species, genes, diseases
|Not reported
|
|
|-
|9. Pollution
|Not reported
|
|
|-
|10. Education & Awareness
|10.1. Educate local communities about primates and sustainable use
|Awareness raising activities include making people aware of danger of mining for chimpanzees (Chimbo Foundation 2018)
|Ongoing (2022)
|-
|
|10.2. Involve local community in primate research and conservation management
|Chimbo Foundation 2018
|Ongoing (2022)
|-
|
|10.6. Integrate religion/local taboos into conservation education
|220 sacred sites in Data Base since 2020
|Ongoing (2022)
|-
|11. Habitat Protection
|11.2. Legally protect primate habitat
|Since 2017, part of the site has been designated a National Park
|Ongoing (2022)
|-
|
|11.2. Legally protect primate habitat
|220 sacred sites in data base; 178 sacred sites (ICCA’s) integrated in World Data Base on Protected Areas (Goedmakers pers. comm. 2022).
|Ongoing (2022)
|-
|12. Species Management
|Not reported
|
|
|-
|13. Livelihood; Economic & Other Incentives
|13.1. Provide monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g. REDD, employment)
|Local people are employed by Chimbo (Chimbo Foundation 2019)
|Ongoing (2019)
|-
|
|13.2. Provide non-monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g. better education, infrastructure development)
|Rice banks, secondary school education for girls sincec 2010.
|Ongoing (2022)
|-
|
|13.3. Run research project and ensure permanent human presence at site
|Chimbo Foundation 2019
|Ongoing (2019)
|-
|
|13.4. Run tourist projects and ensure permanent human presence at site
|Chimbo Foundation 2019
|Ongoing (2019)
|-
|
|13.5. Permanent presence of staff/manager
|Chimbo Foundation 2019
|Ongoing (2019)
|-
|}
[[Conservation activities list (Junker et al. 2017)]]
= Challenges = <!-- Overview of impediments to ape conservation -->
Until now, the local cultural values of the Boé are mainly rooted in their relation with the natural environment (e.g. forest grooves, natural springs, and specific animal- and plant species) and are contributing to the protection of forests and primate populations. This traditional knowledge about the natural and cultural environment is held by the elders, but not always transferred to the next generations. An erosion of cultural values in the Boé among the younger generation can be observed. Food- and hunting taboos are no longer respected as before, for example, baboons have become much more difficult to observe as a result; sacred forests are threatened by expanding agriculture; alcohol consumption is increasing among the youngsters of these traditional Muslim communities (Chimbo Foundation 2018).
'''Table 5. Challenges reported for Boé Sector'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="impediments-table"
!align="left"|Challenge <!-- Do not change categories -->
!Source <!-- source for impediment mentioned -->
|-
|Lack of law enforcement
|IUCN & Chimbo 2016
|-
|Lack of financial means
|Torres et al. 2010
|-
|Non-function of transmission of local culture to younger generations, eroding taboos through immigration
|Chimbo Foundation 2018
|}
= Research activities = <!-- Overview of research activities -->
===Documented behaviours=== <!-- List of any behaviours observed at the site, including citations -->
Chimpanzees nested mainly in semi-dense forest, to an even greater extent than reported by Fleury-Brugiere & Brugiere 2010 and Bersacola et al. 2018. Unique high preference for Khaya senegalensis and especially Parkia biglobosa for nesting (Wenceslau 2014).
'''Table 6. Great ape behaviors reported for Boé Sector'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="behaviors-table"
!align="left"|Behavior <!-- Do not change categories -->
!Source <!-- source for behavior -->
|-
|Accumulative stone throwing
|Chimbo annual report 2010, Kühl et al. 2016, Buys 2017, Kalan et al. 2019, Buys et al. 2022
|-
|Ant dipping
|Kühl et al. 2019
|-
|Ant eating
|Kühl et al. 2019
|-
|Bathing
|Kühl et al. 2019
|-
|Honey eating
|Kühl et al. 2019
|-
|Honey extraction with tool
|Kühl et al. 2019
|-
|Stone throwing
|Kühl et al. 2019
|}
= References =
Bersacola, E., Bessa, J., Frazão-Moreira, A., Biro, D., Sousa, C., & Hockings, K. J. 2018. Primate occurrence across a human-impacted landscape in Guinea-Bissau and neighbouring regions in West Africa: using a systematic literature review to highlight the next conservation steps. PeerJ, 6, e4847. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.4847<br>
Binczik, A., Roig-Boixeda, P., Heymann, E. W., & Waltert, M. 2017. Conservation of chimpanzees Pan troglodytes verus and other primates depends on forest patches in a West African savannah landscape. Oryx, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605317001090<br>
Buys B. 2017. Drumming in the Boé. Unpublished report.<br>
Chimbo Foundation. 2018. Chimbo Foundation. Online: [http://chimbo.org/?lang=en chimbo.org]<br>
Fleury-Brugiere, M. & Brugiere, D. 2010. High population density of Pan troglodytes verus in the Haut Niger National Park, Republic of Guinea: implications for local and regional conservation. International Jounal of Primatology, 31, 383-392.<br>
Goedmakers, A. 2010. Community based action: a fast track towards successful chimpanzee conservation. Chimbo Foundation Annual Report 2010. Available from: http://chimbo.org/
Hockings K & Humle T. 2009. Best Practice Guidelines for the Prevention and Mitigation of Conflict between Humans and Great Apes. IUCN/SSC Primate Specialist Group, Gland, Switzerland.<br>
Hoogveld J. 2013. Using field data to expand knowledge of chimpanzee population. Technical report. Available online [http://chimbo.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/Using-Field-data-to-expand-knowledge-of-Chimpanzee-population-J.-Hoogveld-2013.pdf chimbo.org]<br>
IUCN & Chimbo. 2016. The conservation of the Savannah Chimpanzees of Guinea Bissau and Senegal. Report of a workshop in Béli, Boé sector, Gabu region, Guinea Bissau, 14-16th of February 2016.<br>
Kalan A et al. 2019. Chimpanzees use tree species with a resonant timbre for accumulative stone throwing. Biology Letters 15: 20190747.<br>
Koops, K., T. Humle, E. H. M. Sterck, and T. Matsuzawa. 2007. Ground-nesting by the chimpanzees of the Nimba Mountains, Guinea: environmentally or socially determined? American Journal of Primatology 69, 407-419.<br>
Kühl, H. S., Kalan, A. K., Arandjelovic, M., Aubert, F., D’Auvergne, L., Goedmakers, A., … Boesch, C. 2016. Chimpanzee accumulative stone throwing. Scientific Reports, 6, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep22219<br>
Kühl HS et al. 2019. Human impact erodes chimpanzee behavioral diversity. Science. 363, 1453–1455.<br>
Ramachandra G. 2017. Taboo based governance of sacred forests in the Boé, Guinea Bissau. Master Thesis. Wageningen University and Research. <br>
Serra, A., Silva, C., & Lopes, E. 2007. Étude de faisabilité du projet «Développement touristique de la Boé au profit de la conservation des Chimpanzés et des populations locales». 1–50. Retrieved from http://chimbo.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/Etude-de-Faisabilite´-C.-Schwarz-Silva-2007.pdf<br>
Silva, C., A. Serra, & E. Lopes. 2007. Étude de faisabilité du projet «Développement touristique de la Boé au profit de la conservation des Chimpanzés et des populations locales». IBAP and Daridibó, Bissau.<br>
Tutin, C.E.G. & Fernandez, M. 1984. Nationwide census of gorilla (Gorilla g. gorilla) and chimpanzee (Pan t. troglodytes) populations in Gabon. American Journal of Primatology, 6, 313-336.<br>
Thierry van der Hoeven, Assessment of land cover and forest loss in prime Chimpanzee habitat in the Boé of Guinea-Bissau, West-Africa. Final thesis report. November 12th, 2020. <br>
Van L aar, J.W.T. 2010. A Rapid Rural Appraisal of the Bushmeat Market in the Boé Region, Guinea-Bissau. Http://chimbo.org/ [accessed March 2010].<br>
Van der Meer, I. P. 2014. Inventory of the vegetation structure and food availability for the Western chimpanzee (Pan Inventory of the vegetation structure and food availability for the Western chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes verus ) in the Boé region, Guinea- Bissau.<br>
Wenceslau, J.F.C. 2014. Bauxite Mining and Chimpanzees Population Distribution: A Case Study in the Boé Sector, Guinea-Bissau. Institute for Biodiversity and Protected Areas, Chimbo Foundation, Guinea-Bissau.<br>
White, L. & Edwards, A. (eds.). 2000. Conservation research in the African rain forests: a technical handbook. Wildlife Conservation Society, New York.<br>
Wit, P. & Reintjes, H. C. 1989. An agro-ecological survey of the Boé province, Guinea Bissau. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 27, 609-620.<br>
'''Page completed by:'''Annemarie Goedmakers & Piet Wit''' Date:''' 21/02/2023 <!-- If you don't want to add your name, you can add "A.P.E.S. Wiki team" -->
<br><br>
- Wiki site pages contain information in paragraphs of text, tables, keyword lists, and images
- Text paragraphs and images are not restricted, so text format and images can be chosen as desired.
- Tables and keyword lists are extracted as data, and so have the following restrictions:
1) Table structure cannot be changed
2) Keyword format should not change, i.e. they are comma separated lists, not bullet points or numbered lists.
3) Keywords must be taken from the list of permitted words, or added to the list of permitted keywords. A link to the keyword list page is found adjacent
to the relevant table or keyword list. This ensures that the same keyword always refers to the same concept, e.g. Everybody uses "Industrial mining",
rather than several keywords such as "Industrial mining", "Large-scale mining", and "Mining".
-->
<!-- Please add information for this site -->
[[West Africa]] > [[Guinea-Bissau]] > [[Boé Sector]]
= Summary = <!-- An overview of the site, with a one sentence overview of each of the following sections. can include a site map -->
<div style="float: right">
{{#display_map: height=240px | width=320px | scrollzoom=off | zoom=7 | layers= OpenStreetMap, OpenTopoMap
|11.752282, -14.008097~[[Boé Sector]]~Western Chimpanzee
}}
</div>
* Western chimpanzees (''Pan troglodytes verus'') are present in the Boé Sector.
* It is estimated that approximately 1500 individuals occur at the site.
* The chimpanzee population trend is estimated to be stable.
* This site has a total size of over 3,289 km².
* Key threats to chimpanzees are habitat conversion and a bauxite mining concession.
* The following conservation activities were conducted by Chimbo Foundation: involve the local community in primate research and conservation management; integrate religion/local taboos into conservation; conservation awareness; education.
* Boé Sector partly overlaps Dulombi National Park and Boé National Park.
= Site characteristics = <!-- A paragraph summary of physical and geographic aspects of the site, and a table of key information -->
The Boé Sector covers 3,289 km2; in it, Boé National Park and Dulombi National Park are partly embedded (Wit & Reintjes 1989). The Boé Sector is the most north-westerly part of the Fouta Djallon massive in Guinea (Conakry). The south eastern part of Dulombi National Park is the part of the Boé Sector west of the river Corubal, which can only be crossed by chimpanzees towards the end of the dry season.The landscape consists of flat plateaus with wooden Savanna vegetation (van der Meer 2014). Relatively narrow, shallow river valleys with often steep shorelines are found within this plateaus. Old secondary and often slightly disturbed forest is found further from the river channels (White & Edwards 2000). Along the rivers or streams, gallery forest and isolated savanna vegetation is growing. Here, under constant water supply, the greatest species diversity is found. Furthermore, the origin of the rivers are often designated as a sacred place by the people and thus have a low human activity (White & Edwards 2000, Silva et al. 2007, Koops et al. 2012, van der Meer 2014, Ramachandra 2017). Cultivated land, such as cashew tree plantations and cultivated fields of rice, peanuts, maize, sorghum, and millet are expanding steadily. The climate is tropical, with an annual mean temperature of 28°C and annual rainfall of c. 1,500-1,750 mm (USGS, n.d.). The Boé Sector is located in the tropical dry forest climate zone. Daytime temperatures range between 30-33°C while nighttime temperatures vary from 18-23°C. It hardly ever rains from December to April and it is very wet from June through October. The area is sparsely populated, with around 12,000 people living in 85 villages, and still relatively well preserved. The region has contiguous habitats and it is considered to be a very important area for chimpanzees (''Pan troglodytes verus'') in West Africa (Van der Meer 2014).
'''Table 1. Basic site information for Boé Sector'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="basic-information"
|Area <!-- Please include units: km2/ha e.g 200ha -->
|3,289 km²
|-
|Coordinates
|11.752282, -14.008097
|-
|Designation <!-- National Park, Nature Reserve, etc. -->
|Administrative unit, partly overlaps with national parks
|-
|Habitat types <!-- List IUCN Habitat Classification 3.0 categories present (Without number), see link below -->
|Moist Savanna, Subtropical/Tropical Moist Lowland Forest (Gallery forest), Plantations
|}
https://www.iucnredlist.org/resources/habitat-classification-scheme IUCN habitat categories] [[Site designations]]
= Ape status = <!-- a text overview of ape status (population sizes, trends etc), followed by a table of specific surveys and results -->
The only estimate for the whole site available is 1000-1500 individuals and a density of 2.4 individuals/km2 (Serra et al. 2007). A chimpanzee nest survey along the Quebube River found 1800 nests in an area of 10km2 (Hoogveld 2013). Based on observations and data collected between 2011 and 2016 in the territories of Dijifilm and Paramanguel, which are also part of Dulombi National Park, the average group size was about 7, but groups up to 19 animals have been observed. It is possible that at least 25 to 30 chimpanzees are present in the territories of Djifim and Paramanguel (Wit, P. & Goedmakers, A. pers. comm. 2022).
'''Table 2. Great ape population estimates in Boé Sector'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="population-estimate-table"
! Species
! Year
! Abundance estimate (95% confidence interval)
! Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI)
! Encounter rate (nests/km)
! Area
! Method
! Source
! Comments
! A.P.E.S. database ID
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2006
|710
|2.4
|
|Boé Sector
|Interview method
|Serra, Silva, & Lopes 2007
|29 non-systematically placed points
|
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2013
|44 (16-120)
|2.02 (0.75-5.45)
|11.37
|Southeastern part of Boé Sector (Ronde Hill, gallery forests of Paramaka and Jabere rivers)
|Line transects (Distance), index survey, presence-absence sampling
|Wenceslau 2014
|Line transect total survey effort: 100 km; Camera traps identified at least 22 individuals, reconnaissance walk
|
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2016
|80 (46–140)
|0.77 (0.45-1.34)
|3.519
|Béli village in Boé Sector (104 km²)
|Line transects (Distance)
|Binczik et al. 2017
|Total survey effort: 39 km, based on the results 1,465-4,415 chimpanzees are estimated for the whole Boé Sector
|
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2011-2016
|25-30
|
|
|Territories of Djifilm and Paramanguel, approx. 80 sq. km
|Other
|Wit, P. & Goedmakers, A. pers. comm. 2022
|Based on patrols by community members.
|
|}
= Threats = <!-- a text overview of threats, followed by a table of key threats -->
Chimpanzees in the Boé Sector in Guinea-Bissau are mainly threatened by habitat loss, fragmentation and degradation. Forests being cleared by farmers for shifting cultivation practices, mainly for rice and maize farming and cashew plantations (Wit & Reintjes 1989). The gallery forests and intact tree populations remain almost exclusively on steep slopes of river valleys with difficult access. Due to the high population growth in Guinea-Bissau (annual rate 2.44 %) new villages in the central region of Boé were established and increased the pressure on the already limited areas of intact forests (Chimbo Foundation 2015). Overall, the local culture inhabits pro environmental habits. The attitude towards primates among the local communities in Boé is in general positive (Hockings & Humle 2009). Hunting of primates is rare because of religious taboos (van Laar 2010) and some parts of the gallery forest, mostly around headwaters, are protected by traditional beliefs (White & Edwards 2000; Silva et al. 2007; Koops et al. 2012; van der Meer 2014). The ongoing loss of traditions and of respect for traditional institutions presents a threat to the survival of Boé’s cultural heritage and natural resource base. One of the Bauxite mining concessions is situated at the middle course of Jabere river, neighbouring an area occupied by chimpanzees during the dry season. Effects on the populations are expected, because: 1) this site provides during the dry season one of the few places with permanent water availability, 2) water pollution in consequence by the mining operations, by the workers and washouts of sediments, (3) Noise pollution through explosions, heavy machinery and roads (Wenceslau 2014). Furthermore, an influx of workers could disturb the local culture and increase the pressure on the already limited resources available (Wenceslau 2014). Bush fires are occurring, sometimes due to fire setting by the Boenques, cattle herders in great part coming from Guinea (Wenceslau, 2014), or on purpose by hunters, but also negligence of farmers and fishermen. During the late dry season herders burn grasslands. After the whole north flank of Ronde Hill was burned by a Boenque family, destroying an area of at least 300 ha, no new chimpanzee nests were spotted on the affected areas (Wenceslau 2014). Burning for opening an agricultural area is restricted to the plantation field but may spread easily.Cattle herders are in higher numbers and more permanently settling in remote areas that were relatively undisturbed before their arrival (Goedmakers pers. comm. 2022).
'''Table 3. Threats to great apes in Boé Sector'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="threats-table"
!align="left"|Category <!-- Do not change threat categories -->
!Specific threats <!-- For specific threats, please use list of comma separated keywords from the list linked below -->
!Threat level <!-- For threat level, please use keywords: unknown, low, high -->
!Quantified severity <!-- e.g., encounter rate, number of miners etc. (with reference)-->
!Description <!-- You can add descriptive information here -->
!Year of threat <!-- if ongoing or unknown add year of reference in brackets-->
|-
|1. Residential & commercial development
|1.1 Housing & Urban Areas
|Low
|
|New villages were established (Chimbo Foundation 2015)
|Ongoing (2015)
|-
|
|1.1 Housing & Urban Areas
|Medium
|Settling of cattle owners with their herds; about 60 families with 7000 head of cattle.
|Settlements in remote areas cause disturbances since the 1990s (Goedmakers pers. comm. 2022).
|Ongoing (2022)
|-
|2. Agriculture & aquaculture
|2.1 Annual & Perennial Non-Timber Crops
|Low
|
|2.1.2 Small-holder Farming (Chimbo Foundation 2015)
|Ongoing (2015)
|-
|
|2.1 Annual & Perennial Non-Timber Crops
|Medium
|70 ha of forest converted to cashew plantations between 2016 and 2020.
|Cashew plantations increasing in area (Van der Hoeven 2020).
|Ongoing (2020)
|-
|
|2.3 Livestock farming & ranching
|Medium
|
|Temporary cattle camps at remote places; about 1/3 of cattle people are transhumant (Goedmakers pers. comm. 2022).
|Ongoing (2022)
|-
|3. Energy production & mining
|3.2. Mining & Quarrying
|High
|
|Bauxite ming sites are planned next to chimpanzee populations (Wenceslau 2014)
|Planned
|-
|4. Transportation & service corridors
|
|Absent
|
|
|
|-
|5. Biological resource use
|5.1 Hunting & Collecting Terrestrial Animals
|Low
|
|Hunting of chimpanzees is rare in Boé because of religious taboos (van Laar 2010).
|Ongoing (2010)
|-
|6. Human intrusions & disturbance
|
|Absent
|
|
|
|-
|7. Natural system modifications
|7.1 Fire & Fire Suppression
|High
|300 ha burned in 2013
|Herding practices may provoke fast spreading and uncontrollable wildfires (Wenceslau 2014). But also farmers, hunters and fishermen may cause harmful bushfires.
|Ongoing (2014)
|-
|8. Invasive & other problematic species, genes, diseases
|
|Unknown
|
|
|
|-
|9. Pollution
|
|Absent
|
|
|
|-
|10. Geological Events
|
|Absent
|
|
|
|-
| 11. Climate change & severe weather
|
|Unknown
|
|
|
|-
|12. Other options
|
|Absent
|
|
|
|-
|}
[https://www.iucnredlist.org/resources/threat-classification-scheme IUCN Threats list]
= Conservation activities = <!-- a text overview of conservation activities, followed by a table of key activities -->
IBAP (The Institute for Biodiversity and Protected Areas) established a National Park (PNB) and Wildlife Corridors in part of the Boé Sector east of the river Corubal and a National Park (PND) in the part of the Boé Sector west of the river Corubal. The Chimbo Foundation together with its local sister organization Daridibó executes a program of community-based sustainable conservation in the Boé, creating synergy between conservation and development (Chimbo Foundation 2018). The long-term objective of this programme is to guarantee the long-term survival of the western chimpanzee population in the Boé through community-based conservation. Chimbo works with 28 Village Vigilance Committees and 40 village Fire Brigades. 178 sacred sites are mapped by Chimbo and registered as ICCA’s. Students and visiting researchers work on different aspects of integrated conservation: inventories of flora and fauna, socio-ecological surveys, etc. Since 2021 ARCUS finances a program to identify “drumming trees” aiming to increase their protection by the local population. The development of ecotourism in the Boé Sector has started in 2012.
'''Table 4. Conservation activities in Boé Sector'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="conservation-actions-table"
!align="left"|Category <!-- Do not change threat categories -->
!Specific activity <!-- For specific threats, please use list of comma separated keywords from the list linked below -->
!Description <!-- You can add descriptive information here -->
!Year of activity <!-- if ongoing or unknown add year of reference in brackets -->
|-
|1. Residential & commercial development
|Other
|Inventory of herdsmen to estimate numbers of settlements and reasons why they came to and settled in Boé (Goedmakers pers. comm. 2022).
|2022
|-
|2. Agriculture & aquaculture
|Other
|Since 2008, improved slash-and-burn practices; respect of larger trees; use of green manure (Goedmakers pers. comm. 2022).
|Ongoing (2022)
|-
|3. Energy production & mining
|Not reported
|
|
|-
|4. Transportation & service corridors
|Not reported
|
|
|-
|5. Biological resource use
|5.6. Conduct regular anti-poaching patrols
|IBAP implements patrols and Chimbo works with 28 village committee who do patrols (Chimbo Foundation 2019).
|Ongoing (2019)
|-
|
|5.16. Implement community control of patrolling, banning hunting and removing snares
|Chimbo works with 28 village committee who implement patrols (Chimbo Foundation 2019).
|Ongoing (2019)
|-
|6. Human intrusions & disturbance
|Other
|Conservation awareness raising among herdsmen (Goedmakers pers. comm. 2022).
|Ongoing (2022)
|-
|7. Natural system modifications
|7.2. Protect important food/nest trees before burning
|Early fire program to protect forest (Chimbo Foundation 2019)
|Ongoing (2019)
|-
|8. Invasive & other problematic species, genes, diseases
|Not reported
|
|
|-
|9. Pollution
|Not reported
|
|
|-
|10. Education & Awareness
|10.1. Educate local communities about primates and sustainable use
|Awareness raising activities include making people aware of danger of mining for chimpanzees (Chimbo Foundation 2018)
|Ongoing (2022)
|-
|
|10.2. Involve local community in primate research and conservation management
|Chimbo Foundation 2018
|Ongoing (2022)
|-
|
|10.6. Integrate religion/local taboos into conservation education
|220 sacred sites in Data Base since 2020
|Ongoing (2022)
|-
|11. Habitat Protection
|11.2. Legally protect primate habitat
|Since 2017, part of the site has been designated a National Park
|Ongoing (2022)
|-
|
|11.2. Legally protect primate habitat
|220 sacred sites in data base; 178 sacred sites (ICCA’s) integrated in World Data Base on Protected Areas (Goedmakers pers. comm. 2022).
|Ongoing (2022)
|-
|12. Species Management
|Not reported
|
|
|-
|13. Livelihood; Economic & Other Incentives
|13.1. Provide monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g. REDD, employment)
|Local people are employed by Chimbo (Chimbo Foundation 2019)
|Ongoing (2019)
|-
|
|13.2. Provide non-monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g. better education, infrastructure development)
|Rice banks, secondary school education for girls sincec 2010.
|Ongoing (2022)
|-
|
|13.3. Run research project and ensure permanent human presence at site
|Chimbo Foundation 2019
|Ongoing (2019)
|-
|
|13.4. Run tourist projects and ensure permanent human presence at site
|Chimbo Foundation 2019
|Ongoing (2019)
|-
|
|13.5. Permanent presence of staff/manager
|Chimbo Foundation 2019
|Ongoing (2019)
|-
|}
[[Conservation activities list (Junker et al. 2017)]]
= Challenges = <!-- Overview of impediments to ape conservation -->
Until now, the local cultural values of the Boé are mainly rooted in their relation with the natural environment (e.g. forest grooves, natural springs, and specific animal- and plant species) and are contributing to the protection of forests and primate populations. This traditional knowledge about the natural and cultural environment is held by the elders, but not always transferred to the next generations. An erosion of cultural values in the Boé among the younger generation can be observed. Food- and hunting taboos are no longer respected as before, for example, baboons have become much more difficult to observe as a result; sacred forests are threatened by expanding agriculture; alcohol consumption is increasing among the youngsters of these traditional Muslim communities (Chimbo Foundation 2018).
'''Table 5. Challenges reported for Boé Sector'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="impediments-table"
!align="left"|Challenge <!-- Do not change categories -->
!Source <!-- source for impediment mentioned -->
|-
|Lack of law enforcement
|IUCN & Chimbo 2016
|-
|Lack of financial means
|Torres et al. 2010
|-
|Non-function of transmission of local culture to younger generations, eroding taboos through immigration
|Chimbo Foundation 2018
|}
= Research activities = <!-- Overview of research activities -->
===Documented behaviours=== <!-- List of any behaviours observed at the site, including citations -->
Chimpanzees nested mainly in semi-dense forest, to an even greater extent than reported by Fleury-Brugiere & Brugiere 2010 and Bersacola et al. 2018. Unique high preference for Khaya senegalensis and especially Parkia biglobosa for nesting (Wenceslau 2014).
'''Table 6. Great ape behaviors reported for Boé Sector'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="behaviors-table"
!align="left"|Behavior <!-- Do not change categories -->
!Source <!-- source for behavior -->
|-
|Accumulative stone throwing
|Chimbo annual report 2010, Kühl et al. 2016, Buys 2017, Kalan et al. 2019, Buys et al. 2022
|-
|Ant dipping
|Kühl et al. 2019
|-
|Ant eating
|Kühl et al. 2019
|-
|Bathing
|Kühl et al. 2019
|-
|Honey eating
|Kühl et al. 2019
|-
|Honey extraction with tool
|Kühl et al. 2019
|-
|Stone throwing
|Kühl et al. 2019
|}
= References =
Bersacola, E., Bessa, J., Frazão-Moreira, A., Biro, D., Sousa, C., & Hockings, K. J. 2018. Primate occurrence across a human-impacted landscape in Guinea-Bissau and neighbouring regions in West Africa: using a systematic literature review to highlight the next conservation steps. PeerJ, 6, e4847. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.4847<br>
Binczik, A., Roig-Boixeda, P., Heymann, E. W., & Waltert, M. 2017. Conservation of chimpanzees Pan troglodytes verus and other primates depends on forest patches in a West African savannah landscape. Oryx, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605317001090<br>
Buys B. 2017. Drumming in the Boé. Unpublished report.<br>
Chimbo Foundation. 2018. Chimbo Foundation. Online: [http://chimbo.org/?lang=en chimbo.org]<br>
Fleury-Brugiere, M. & Brugiere, D. 2010. High population density of Pan troglodytes verus in the Haut Niger National Park, Republic of Guinea: implications for local and regional conservation. International Jounal of Primatology, 31, 383-392.<br>
Goedmakers, A. 2010. Community based action: a fast track towards successful chimpanzee conservation. Chimbo Foundation Annual Report 2010. Available from: http://chimbo.org/
Hockings K & Humle T. 2009. Best Practice Guidelines for the Prevention and Mitigation of Conflict between Humans and Great Apes. IUCN/SSC Primate Specialist Group, Gland, Switzerland.<br>
Hoogveld J. 2013. Using field data to expand knowledge of chimpanzee population. Technical report. Available online [http://chimbo.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/Using-Field-data-to-expand-knowledge-of-Chimpanzee-population-J.-Hoogveld-2013.pdf chimbo.org]<br>
IUCN & Chimbo. 2016. The conservation of the Savannah Chimpanzees of Guinea Bissau and Senegal. Report of a workshop in Béli, Boé sector, Gabu region, Guinea Bissau, 14-16th of February 2016.<br>
Kalan A et al. 2019. Chimpanzees use tree species with a resonant timbre for accumulative stone throwing. Biology Letters 15: 20190747.<br>
Koops, K., T. Humle, E. H. M. Sterck, and T. Matsuzawa. 2007. Ground-nesting by the chimpanzees of the Nimba Mountains, Guinea: environmentally or socially determined? American Journal of Primatology 69, 407-419.<br>
Kühl, H. S., Kalan, A. K., Arandjelovic, M., Aubert, F., D’Auvergne, L., Goedmakers, A., … Boesch, C. 2016. Chimpanzee accumulative stone throwing. Scientific Reports, 6, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep22219<br>
Kühl HS et al. 2019. Human impact erodes chimpanzee behavioral diversity. Science. 363, 1453–1455.<br>
Ramachandra G. 2017. Taboo based governance of sacred forests in the Boé, Guinea Bissau. Master Thesis. Wageningen University and Research. <br>
Serra, A., Silva, C., & Lopes, E. 2007. Étude de faisabilité du projet «Développement touristique de la Boé au profit de la conservation des Chimpanzés et des populations locales». 1–50. Retrieved from http://chimbo.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/Etude-de-Faisabilite´-C.-Schwarz-Silva-2007.pdf<br>
Silva, C., A. Serra, & E. Lopes. 2007. Étude de faisabilité du projet «Développement touristique de la Boé au profit de la conservation des Chimpanzés et des populations locales». IBAP and Daridibó, Bissau.<br>
Tutin, C.E.G. & Fernandez, M. 1984. Nationwide census of gorilla (Gorilla g. gorilla) and chimpanzee (Pan t. troglodytes) populations in Gabon. American Journal of Primatology, 6, 313-336.<br>
Thierry van der Hoeven, Assessment of land cover and forest loss in prime Chimpanzee habitat in the Boé of Guinea-Bissau, West-Africa. Final thesis report. November 12th, 2020. <br>
Van L aar, J.W.T. 2010. A Rapid Rural Appraisal of the Bushmeat Market in the Boé Region, Guinea-Bissau. Http://chimbo.org/ [accessed March 2010].<br>
Van der Meer, I. P. 2014. Inventory of the vegetation structure and food availability for the Western chimpanzee (Pan Inventory of the vegetation structure and food availability for the Western chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes verus ) in the Boé region, Guinea- Bissau.<br>
Wenceslau, J.F.C. 2014. Bauxite Mining and Chimpanzees Population Distribution: A Case Study in the Boé Sector, Guinea-Bissau. Institute for Biodiversity and Protected Areas, Chimbo Foundation, Guinea-Bissau.<br>
White, L. & Edwards, A. (eds.). 2000. Conservation research in the African rain forests: a technical handbook. Wildlife Conservation Society, New York.<br>
Wit, P. & Reintjes, H. C. 1989. An agro-ecological survey of the Boé province, Guinea Bissau. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 27, 609-620.<br>
'''Page completed by:'''Annemarie Goedmakers & Piet Wit''' Date:''' 21/02/2023 <!-- If you don't want to add your name, you can add "A.P.E.S. Wiki team" -->
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