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Line 1: − [[East Africa]] > [[Uganda]] > [[Bulindi Area]]+ − + − '''[https://wiki-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/The_A.P.E.S._Wiki?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=fr&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Français]''' | + − '''[https://wiki-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/The_A.P.E.S._Wiki?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=pt&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Português]''' | + − '''[https://wiki-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/The_A.P.E.S._Wiki?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=id&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Bahasa Indonesia]''' |+ − '''[https://wiki-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/The_A.P.E.S._Wiki?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=ms&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Melayu]'''+ − + − = Summary = <!-- An overview of the site, with one sentence for each section. May include a site map -->+ − <div style="float: right">+ − {{#display_map: height=200px | width=300px | scrollzoom=off | zoom=5 | layers= OpenStreetMap, OpenTopoMap − |1.483333 , 31.466667~[[Eastern chimpanzees]]~ − }} − </div> + + Line 18:
Line 16: − + − [[File:Male chimpanzees crossing the road in Bulindi (Photo by Jacqueline Rohen)_2.jpg | 350px | thumb| right |Male chimpanzees crossing the road in Bulindi (Photo by Jacqueline Rohen)]] − − + − + − |''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii'' − |- − | Area − + − + − + − + − |+ − |- − |Habitat type − − + Line 53:
Line 43: − + − ! Occurrence − ! Encounter or visitation rate (nests/km; ind/day) − ! Density estimate [ind/ km²] (95% CI) − + − + − + + Line 70:
Line 58: − + − + − |22+ − − | − [[Sampling methods]] ⋅ [[Analytical frameworks]] Line 87:
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Line 105: − + − + + − + − |2000-Ongoing (2020)+ − |-+ − |5. Biological resource use − |5.1.5 Persecution/human wildlife conflict − |High − |The chimpanzees are at high risk of potentially lethal crop protection measures, particularly large steel leg-hold traps (known as 'mantraps'). Mantraps are placed by agricultural fields by a minority of farmers to deter crop-foraging wildlife including wild pigs, monkeys and the chimpanzees (McLennan et al. 2012; Cibot et al. 2019a). At least 5 chimpanzees were caught in steel traps, 2007-2011 (McLennan et al. 2012). − − + − + − + + + Line 146:
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Line 186: − + − + − + − + − + + + + + − + − + − |Bulindi Chimpanzee and Community Project − + − + + + + + + + + + + + − + − |2015-Ongoing (2020)+ + + + + + + + + + − + − + − |Bulindi Chimpanzee and Community Project − + − + + + + + + − |Bulindi Chimpanzee and Community Project − + − + − |Bulindi Chimpanzee and Community Project − + − | − + − + − + − |2015-Ongoing (2020) − + − + − + − |2015-Ongoing (2020) − + − + − + − |2015-Ongoing (2020) − |- − |8. Permanent presence − |Not reported − | − | − | − + − − = Conservation implementation challenges and enablers = <!-- Overview of challenges in ape conservation --> + − + − + − + − + − − !Year(s) − |- − |1. Site management − |Not reported − | − | − |- − |2. Resources & capacity − |2.3 General lack of funding − |McLennan pers. comm. 2020 − | − + − |Not reported+ − | − − + − |4.1 Lack of law enforcement − |Ongoing (2008) − + − |4.3 Lack of protected area status − |Ongoing (2008) − |- − |5. Ecological context − |Not reported − | − | − |- − |6. Safety & stability − |Not reported − | − | − [[Challenges]] − − '''Table 6. Enablers reported for Bulindi Area''' − {| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="enablers-table" − !align="left"|Category <!-- PLEASE DO NOT CHANGE THE CATEGORIES --> − !Enabler − !Source − !Year(s) − |- − |1. Site management − |Not reported − | − | − |- − |2. Resources & capacity − |Not reported − | − | − |- − |3. Engaged community − |Not reported − | − | − |- − |4. Institutional support − |Not reported − | − | − |- − |5. Ecological context − |Not reported − | − | − |- − |6. Safety & stability − |Not reported − | − | − |- − |} − [[Enablers]] Line 353:
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Line 344: − − = Exposure to climate change impacts = − − As part of a study on the exposure of African great ape sites to climate change impacts, Kiribou et al. (2024) extracted climate data and data on projected extreme climate impact events for the site. Climatological characteristics were derived from observation-based climate data provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project ([ISIMIP www.isimip.org]). Parameters were calculated as the average across each 30-year period. − For future projections, two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) were used. RCP 2.6 is a scenario with strong mitigation measures in which global temperatures would likely rise below 2°C. RCP 6.0 is a scenario with medium emissions in which global temperatures would likely rise up to 3°C by 2100. For the number of days with heavy precipitation events, the 98th percentile of all precipitation days (>1mm/d) was calculated for the 1979-2013 reference period as a threshold for a heavy precipitation event. Then, for each year, the number of days above that threshold was derived. The figures on temperature and precipitation anomaly show the deviation from the mean temperature and mean precipitation for the 1979-2013 reference period. The estimated exposure to future extreme climate impact events (crop failure, drought, river flood, wildfire, tropical cyclone, and heatwave) is based on a published dataset by Lange et al. 2020 derived from ISIMIP2b data. The same global climate models and RCPs as described above were used. Within each 30-year period, the number of years with an extreme event and the average proportion of the site affected were calculated (Kiribou et al. 2024). − − '''Table 8. Estimated past and projected climatological characteristics in Bulindi Area''' − {| border='1' cellpadding='5' cellspacing='0' class='EE-table' − | − |'''1981-2010''' − |'''2021-2050, RCP 2.6''' − |'''2021-2050, RCP 6.0''' − |'''2071-2099, RCP 2.6''' − |'''2071-2099, RCP 6.0''' − |- − |Mean temperature [°C] − |23.1 − |24.2 − |24.2 − |24.5 − |25.6 − |- − |Annual precipitation [mm] − |1245 − |1265 − |1332 − |1187 − |1451 − |- − |Max no. consecutive dry days (per year) − |25.2 − |25.5 − |30.4 − |27.6 − |28.5 − |- − |No. days with heavy precipitation (per year) − |5.9 − |5.1 − |4.7 − |5.8 − |8.4 − |- − |} − − '''Table 9. Projected exposure of apes to extreme climate impact events in Bulindi Area''' − {| border='1' cellpadding='5' cellspacing='0' class='EE-table' − | − |'''No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)''' − |'''% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)''' − |'''No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)''' − |'''% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)''' − |'''No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)''' − |'''% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)''' − |'''No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)''' − |'''% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)''' − |- − |Crop failure − |4 − |0.82 − |2 − |0.61 − |3 − |1.13 − |10 − |0.49 − |- − |Drought − |0 − |0 − |0 − |0 − |0 − |0 − |0 − |0 − |- − |Heatwave − |0 − |0 − |0 − |0 − |0 − |0 − |0.5 − |50 − |- − |River flood − |1.25 − |0.59 − |4 − |2.46 − |1 − |0.66 − |5.25 − |3.51 − |- − |Tropical cyclone − |0 − |0 − |0 − |0 − |0 − |0 − |0 − |0 − |- − |Wildfire − |30 − |2.26 − |30 − |1.91 − |29 − |1.57 − |29 − |1.37 − |- − |} − − <div><ul> − <li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File: PrecipAnomaly_Bulindi.png | 450px | thumb| right | Precipitation anomaly in Bulindi Area]] </li> − <li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File: TempAnomaly Bulindi.png | 450px | thumb| right | Temperature anomaly in Bulindi Area]] </li> − </ul></div> Line 530:
Line 350: + + + Line 558:
Line 381: − Kiribou, R., Tehoda, P., Chukwu, O., Bempah, G., Kühl, H. S., Ferreira, J., ... & Heinicke, S. (2024). Exposure of African ape sites to climate change impacts. PLOS Climate, 3(2), e0000345.<br> + − Lange, S., Volkholz, J., Geiger, T., Zhao, F., Vega, I., Veldkamp, T., ... & Frieler, K. (2020). Projecting exposure to extreme climate impact events across six event categories and three spatial scales. Earth's Future, 8(12), e2020EF001616.<br>
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[[East Africa]] > [[Uganda]] > [[Bulindi]]
= Summary = <!-- An overview of the site, with one sentence for each section. May include a site map -->
[[File:Male chimpanzees crossing the road in Bulindi (Photo by Jacqueline Rohen)_2.jpg | 350px | thumb| right |Male chimpanzees crossing the road in Bulindi (Photo by Jacqueline Rohen)]]
* Eastern chimpanzees (''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii'') are present in Bulindi.
* Eastern chimpanzees (''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii'') are present in Bulindi.
* It is estimated that 22 individuals inhabit the site.
* It is estimated that 22 individuals inhabit the site.
* The site has a total size of 25 km².
* The site has a total size of 25 km².
* Key threats to chimpanzees are habitat loss, human-chimpanzee conflict, lethal crop protection measures, roads, and diseases.
* Key threats to chimpanzees are habitat loss, human-chimpanzee conflict, lethal crop protection measures, roads, and diseases.
* Conservation activities implemented by the Bulindi Chimpanzee and Community Project focus on supporting local residents through livelihood alternatives to deforestation, extensive tree planting, investing in children’s education, local community outreach, and provision of boreholes and energy stoves.
* Conservations activities implemented by the Bulindi Chimpanzee and Community Project focus on supporting local residents through livelihood alternatives to deforestation, extensive tree planting, investing in children’s education, local community outreach, and provision of boreholes and energy stoves.
= Site characteristics = <!-- A paragraph summary of physical and geographic aspects of the site, and a table of key information -->
= Site characteristics = <!-- A paragraph summary of physical and geographic aspects of the site, and a table of key information -->
[[File: Landscape view of Bulindi showing main road and riparian forest at center (Photo by Ronan Donovan)_2.jpg | 350px | thumb| right |Landscape view of Bulindi showing main road and riparian forest at center (Photo by Ronan Donovan)]]
[[File: Landscape view of Bulindi showing main road and riparian forest at center (Photo by Ronan Donovan)_2.jpg | 350px | thumb| right |Landscape view of Bulindi showing main road and riparian forest at center (Photo by Ronan Donovan)]]
Bulindi (1°29′N, 31°28′E) is situated midway between the Budongo and Bugoma Central Forest Reserves in western Uganda, within the so-called [[Budongo-Bugoma corridor]]. Bulindi is unique in that it is a long-term chimpanzee research site located entirely on land belonging to local villagers (McLennan et al. 2020). The site is predominantly agricultural and village land, with remnant patches of unprotected and highly degraded riparian and swamp forest (McLennan & Plumptre 2012).
Bulindi (1°29′N, 31°28′E) is situated midway between the Budongo and Bugoma Central Forest Reserves in western Uganda, within the so-called [[Budongo-Bugoma corridor]]. Bulindi is unique in that it is a long-term chimpanzee research site located entirely on land belonging to local villagers (McLennan et al. 2020). The site is predominantly agricultural and village land, with remnant patches of unprotected and highly degraded riparian and swamp forest (McLennan & Plumptre 2012).
The field site corresponds to the home range of one community of eastern chimpanzees. Other primate species found at the site include black and white colobus monkeys (''Colobus guereza''), tantalus monkeys (''Chlorocebus tantalus''), and blue monkeys (''Cercopithecus mitis''); olive baboons (''Papio anubis'') are transitory visitors.
The field site corresponds to the home range of one community of eastern chimpanzees. Other primate species found at the site include black and white colobus monkeys (''Colobus guereza''), tantalus monkeys (''Chlorocebus tantalus''), and blue monkeys (''Cercopithecus mitis''); olive baboons (''Papio anubis'') are transitory visitors.
'''Table 1. Basic site information for Bulindi Area'''
'''Table 1. Basic site information for Bulindi'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="basic-information"
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="basic-information"
| Species
| Area <!-- Please include units: km2/ha e.g 200ha -->
|25 km²
|25 km²
|-
|-
|Coordinates
|Coordinates
|1.483333 , 31.466667
|1.483333 , 31.466667
|-
|-
|Type of site
|Designation
|Non-protected area
|Unclassified
|-
|-
|Governance type
|Habitat types <!-- List IUCN Habitat Classification 3.0 categories present (without number), see link below -->
|Riparian forest, papyrus swamp, rural gardens, arable land, plantations, village and urban areas, subtropical/tropical heavily degraded former forest
|Subtropical/tropical moist lowland forest, subtropical/tropical swamp forest, subtropical/tropical heavily degraded former forest, agricultural land
|}
|}
[[Types of sites]] ⋅ [[Governance types]] ⋅ [[Habitat types]]
[https://www.iucnredlist.org/resources/habitat-classification-scheme IUCN habitat categories] [[Site designations]]
= Ape status = <!--An overview of ape population status (population sizes, trends, etc.), followed by a table of specific surveys and results -->
= Ape status = <!--An overview of ape population status (population sizes, trends, etc.), followed by a table of specific surveys and results -->
Community size declined since the first period of research in 2006-2008, when an estimated 30 individuals or more were present (McLennan & Hill 2010): between 2012 (when all individuals were identified) and 2020 community size has numbered 18-22 individuals. The marked decline in community size between 2008 and 2012 is at least partially attributable to trappings (McLennan et al. 2012).
Community size declined since the first period of research in 2006-2008, when an estimated 30 individuals or more were present (McLennan & Hill 2010): between 2012 (when all individuals were identified) and 2020 community size has numbered 18-22 individuals. The marked decline in community size between 2008 and 2012 is at least partially attributable to trappings (McLennan et al. 2012).
'''Table 2. Ape population estimates in Bulindi Area'''
'''Table 2. Ape population estimates in Bulindi'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="population-estimate-table"
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="population-estimate-table"
! Species
! Species
! Year
! Year
! Abundance estimate (95% CI)
! Abundance estimate (95% CI)
! Survey area
! Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI)
! Sampling method
! Encounter rate (nests/km)
! Analytical framework
! Area
! Method
! Source
! Source
! Comments
! Comments
|''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii''
|''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii''
|2020
|2020
|Present
|22
|
|Approx. 1 individual/km² within the home range
|
|
|Bulindi
|Bulindi Area (25 km²)
|Full count
|Full count
|BCCP 2020
|BCCP 2020
|Community size has varied between 18-22 individuals (2012-2020)
|Community size has varied between 18-22 individuals (2012-2020)
|
|
|}
|}
= Threats = <!-- a text overview of threats, followed by a table of key threats -->
= Threats = <!-- a text overview of threats, followed by a table of key threats -->
More than 80% of the natural forest at Bulindi was converted to farmland in less than 10 years (McLennan et al. 2020). Rapid habitat loss and human encroachment has led to increased conflict between villagers and the resident chimpanzees; loss of wild foods has caused chimpanzees to forage daily for agricultural foods in croplands and around homes (McLennan 2013; McLennan et al. 2020). The chimpanzees are highly threatened by anthropogenic factors including ongoing habitat conversion, lethal crop protection measures (e.g. steel 'mantraps'; McLennan et al. 2012; Cibot et al. 2019a), a busy main road that divides their home range (McLennan & Asiimwe 2016), exposure to novel pathogens (McLennan et al. 2017, 2018) and anthropogenic stressors (McLennan et al. 2019a), and habitat loss reducing opportunities for female dispersal (McCarthy et al. 2020).
More than 80% of the natural forest at Bulindi was converted to farmland in less than 10 years (McLennan et al. 2020). Rapid habitat loss and human encroachment has led to increased conflict between villagers and the resident chimpanzees; loss of wild foods has caused chimpanzees to forage daily for agricultural foods in croplands and around homes (McLennan 2013; McLennan et al. 2020). The chimpanzees are highly threatened by anthropogenic factors including ongoing habitat conversion, lethal crop protection measures (e.g. steel 'mantraps'; McLennan et al. 2012; Cibot et al. 2019a), a busy main road that divides their home range (McLennan & Asiimwe 2016), exposure to novel pathogens (McLennan et al. 2017, 2018) and anthropogenic stressors (McLennan et al. 2019a), and habitat loss reducing opportunities for female dispersal (McCarthy et al. 2020).
'''Table 3. Threats to apes in Bulindi Area'''
'''Table 3. Threats to apes in Bulindi'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="threats-table"
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="threats-table"
!align="left"|Category <!-- PLEASE DO NOT CHANGE THE THREAT CATEGORIES -->
!align="left"|Category <!-- PLEASE DO NOT CHANGE THE THREAT CATEGORIES -->
!Specific threats
!Specific threats <!-- For specific threats, please use list of comma separated keywords from the IUCN list linked below -->
!Threat level
!Threat level <!-- For threat level, please use keywords: low, medium, high, present, absent, unknown-->
!Description
!Quantified severity <!-- Enter any available quantification of the threat, e.g., the proportion of the area affected by the threat, hunting sign encounter rates-->
!Year of threat
!Description <!-- Add descriptive information -->
!Year of threat <!-- Enter specific year(s), “ongoing”, or “unknown”. If the threat is ongoing, please add the year of reference in parentheses -->
|-
|-
|1. Residential & commercial development
|1. Residential & commercial development
|
|
|Unknown
|Absent
|
|
|
|
|
|2. Agriculture & aquaculture
|2. Agriculture & aquaculture
|2.1 Annual & perennial non-timber crops
|2.1 Annual & perennial non-timber crops
|High
|High
|Between 2006 and 2014, 80% of forest in the chimpanzees' home range was cleared entirely for farming (McLennan et al. 2020). Agricultural expansion for both subsistence crops and cash crops such as sugarcane, tobacco, maize and rice (McLennan & Plumptre 2012; McLennan & Hill 2015).
|Between 2006 and 2014, 80% of forest in the chimpanzees' home range was cleared entirely for farming (McLennan et al. 2020).
|2012-Ongoing (2020)
|Agricultural expansion for both subsistence crops and cash crops such as sugarcane, tobacco, maize and rice (McLennan & Plumptre 2012; McLennan & Hill 2015).
|Ongoing (2020)
|-
|-
|3. Energy production & mining
|3. Energy production & mining
|
|
|Unknown
|Absent
|
|
|
|
|
|4.1 Roads & railroads
|4.1 Roads & railroads
|High
|High
|A busy main road connecting Hoima and Masindi towns crosses the chimpanzee range. In 2017 the road was widened and tarmacked. The chimpanzees cross this road at times on a daily basis, putting them at risk of collision with vehicles (McLennan & Asiimwe 2016). One adult female chimpanzee, and her infant, were killed crossing the road during the period 2015-2020 (McLennan & Asiimwe 2016).
|1 adult female chimpanzee, and her infant, were killed crossing the road during 2015-2020 (McLennan & Asiimwe 2016).
|2015-Ongoing (2020)
|A busy main road connecting Hoima and Masindi towns crosses the chimpanzee range. In 2017-28 the road was widened and tarmacked. The chimpanzees cross this road at times on a daily basis, putting them at risk of collision with vehicles (McLennan & Asiimwe 2016).
|Ongoing (2020)
|-
|-
|5. Biological resource use
|5. Biological resource use
|5.3 Logging & wood harvesting
|5.3 Logging & wood harvesting
|High
|High
|Unregulated commercial logging, i.e. local landowners sell trees to timber dealers, and then clear the land for farming (McLennan & Plumptre 2012). Residents also cut small trees for firewood. Most large trees were logged for timber between c. 2000-2015 (McLennan, unpubl. data).
|Most large trees were logged for timber between c. 2000-2015 (McLennan, unpubl. data).
|Unregulated commercial logging, i.e. local landowners sell trees to timber dealers, and then clear the land for farming (McLennan & Plumptre 2012). Residents also cut small trees for firewood.
|Ongoing (2020)
|2007-Ongoing (2020)
|-
|-
|6. Human intrusion & disturbance
|6. Human intrusion & disturbance
|6.3 Other human disturbances
|6.3 Work & other activities
|High
|High
|High exposure to anthropogenic stressors including hostile interactions with local humans, roads, dogs, anthropogenic noise (McLennan et al. 2019a). Chimpanzee faecal glucocorticoid metabolite concentrations were substantially higher in chimpanzees in Bulindi compared to conspecifics in minimally-disturbed habitat in nearby Budongo Forest (McLennan et al. 2019a).
|
|2019-Ongoing (2020)
|Chimpanzees in Bulindi share their landscape with a high-density human population. The chimpanzees encounter people working in gardens and agricultural fields, or engaged in other work activities (e.g. house building, carpentry, cattle herding), on a daily basis.
|Ongoing (2020)
|-
|-
|7. Natural system modifications
|7. Natural system modifications
|7.1 Fire & fire suppression
|7.1 Fire & fire suppression
|Medium
|Medium
|
|Fires used for clearing agricultural gardens threaten remaining forest areas during dry seasons.
|Fires used for clearing agricultural gardens threaten remaining forest areas during dry seasons.
|Ongoing (2020)
|Ongoing (2020)
|7.3 Other ecosystem modifications
|7.3 Other ecosystem modifications
|High
|High
|Only 1 female migrated into the Bulindi community during 2012-2020.
|Reduced options for female dispersal caused by clearance of riparian forest corridors (McCarthy et al. 2020).
|Reduced options for female dispersal caused by clearance of riparian forest corridors (McCarthy et al. 2020).
|Ongoing (2020)
|Ongoing (2020)
|-
|-
|8. Invasive & other problematic species, genes, diseases
|8. Invasive & other problematic species, genes, diseases
|8.4 Pathogens
|
|High
|High
|Prevalence (% of chimpanzees positive) for enterobacterial pathogens Salmonella spp., EHEC, and Shigella spp./EIEC was 7%, 20% and 20%, respectively, in 2015 (McLennan et al. 2018). Prevalence (% positive fecal samples) for potentially pathogenic nematodes was 58%, 48% and 44% for Strongyloides sp.,Oesophagostomum spp.,and Necator sp., respectively, in 2012-13 (McLennan et al. 2017).
|Chimpanzees in Bulindi have contact with waste of domestic animals and people. A number of potentially pathogenic intestinal parasites that may result from cross-species transmission have been detected in chimpanzees at Bulindi including enterobacteria such as Salmonella spp., enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (E. coli) and Shigella spp./enteroinvasive E. coli (McLennan et al. 2018), among various nematode and protozoan parasites (Ota et al. 2015; McLennan et al. 2017). Respiratory diseases are also a threat (McLennan, unpubl. data). The chimpanzees exhibit an unusually high frequency of self-medication (whole leaf swallowing; McLennan & Huffman 2012; McLennan et al. 2017).
|Chimpanzees in Bulindi have contact with waste of domestic animals and people. A number of potentially pathogenic intestinal parasites that may result from cross-species transmission have been detected in chimpanzees at Bulindi including enterobacteria such as Salmonella spp., enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (E. coli) and Shigella spp./enteroinvasive E. coli (McLennan et al. 2018), among various nematode and protozoan parasites (Ota et al. 2015; McLennan et al. 2017). Respiratory diseases are also a threat (McLennan, unpubl. data). The chimpanzees exhibit an unusually high frequency of self-medication (whole leaf swallowing; McLennan & Huffman 2012; McLennan et al. 2017).
|2015-Ongoing (2020)
|Ongoing (2020)
|-
|-
|9. Pollution
|9. Pollution
|9.3 Agricultural & forestry effluents
|9.3 Agricultural & forestry effluents
|High
|High
|
|Local farmers commonly use inorganic herbicides and pesticides; potential impacts on the chimpanzees are not yet known.
|Local farmers commonly use inorganic herbicides and pesticides; potential impacts on the chimpanzees are not yet known.
|Ongoing (2020)
|Ongoing (2020)
|
|
|Absent
|Absent
|
|
|
|
|
| 11. Climate change & severe weather
| 11. Climate change & severe weather
|
|
|Unknown
|Absent
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|12. Other options
|12.1 Other threat
|High
|At least 5 chimpanzees caught in steel traps, 2007-2011 (McLennan et al. 2012).
|The chimpanzees are at high risk of potentially lethal crop protection measures, particularly large steel leg-hold traps (known as 'mantraps'). Mantraps are placed by agricultural fields by a minority of farmers to deter crop-foraging wildlife including wild pigs, monkeys and the chimpanzees (McLennan et al. 2012; Cibot et al. 2019a).
|Ongoing (2020)
|-
|-
|12. Other options
|12. Other options
|
|12.1 Other threat
|Absent
|High
|
|Chimpanzee fecal glucocorticoid metabolite concentrations were substantially higher in chimpanzees in Bulindi compared to conspecifics in minimally-disturbed habitat in nearby Budongo Forest (McLennan et al. 2019a).
|
|High exposure to anthropogenic stressors including hostile interactions with local humans, roads, dogs, anthropogenic noise (McLennan et al. 2019a).
|Ongoing (2020)
|-
|-
|}
|}
[[Threats]]
[https://www.iucnredlist.org/resources/threat-classification-scheme IUCN Threats list]
= Conservation activities = <!-- A summary of the conservation activities, followed by a table of key activities -->
= Conservation activities = <!-- A summary of the conservation activities, followed by a table of key activities -->
The Bulindi Chimpanzee and Community Project (BCCP) was initiated in 2015 to help conserve the chimpanzees in Bulindi and their habitat, and provide livelihood support to local households. The project has since expanded to other regions within the [[Budongo-Bugoma corridor]] where chimpanzees survive in unprotected habitat around villages. Main project activities include supporting local residents through livelihood alternatives to deforestation, extensive tree planting, investing in children’s education, local community outreach, and provision of boreholes and energy stoves. These activities help reduce reliance on remaining natural forest and increase tolerance towards chimpanzees. In parallel, BCCP conducts long-term research and monitoring of multiple groups of 'village chimpanzees' (including the Bulindi community) to understand behavioral adaptations to human-driven environmental change, to aid targeted conservation efforts, and mitigate threats to the chimpanzees' welfare and survival (BCCP 2020).
The Bulindi Chimpanzee and Community Project (BCCP) was initiated in 2015 to help conserve the chimpanzees in Bulindi and their habitat, and provide livelihood support to local households. The project has since expanded to other regions within the [[Budongo-Bugoma corridor]] where chimpanzees survive in unprotected habitat around villages. Main project activities include supporting local residents through livelihood alternatives to deforestation, extensive tree planting, investing in children’s education, local community outreach, and provision of boreholes and energy stoves. These activities help reduce reliance on remaining natural forest and increase tolerance towards chimpanzees. In parallel, BCCP conducts long-term research and monitoring of multiple groups of 'village chimpanzees' (including the Bulindi community) to understand behavioral adaptations to human-driven environmental change, to aid targeted conservation efforts, and mitigate threats to the chimpanzees' welfare and survival (BCCP 2020).
'''Table 4. Conservation activities in Bulindi Area'''
'''Table 4. Conservation activities in Bulindi'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="conservation-actions-table"
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="conservation-actions-table"
!align="left"|Category <!-- PLEASE DO NOT CHANGE THE CATEGORIES -->
!align="left"|Category <!-- PLEASE DO NOT CHANGE THE CATEGORIES -->
!Specific activity
!Specific activity <!-- For specific threats, please use list from the list linked below, OR enter “Not reported” -->
!Description
!Description <!-- Add descriptive information -->
!Implementing organization
!Year of activity <!-- Add descriptive information -->
!Year of activity
|-
|1. Residential & commercial development
|Not reported
|
|
|-
|-
|1. Development impact mitigation
|2. Agriculture & aquaculture
|1.4 Farm more intensively and effectively in selected areas and spare more natural land
|2.11. Farm more intensively and effectively in selected areas and spare more natural land
|BCCP has a coffee growing alternative livelihood project. The project provides coffee seedlings to farmers and guidance on 'best practice' coffee farming. Unlike other cash crops (e.g. tobacco and rice), coffee is 'chimpanzee friendly' because farmers establish coffee in existing gardens rather than cutting new gardens in forest or wetlands, and chimpanzees and other primates do not eat any part of the coffee plant. Coffee matures after 2-3 years and the harvest can contribute significantly to household incomes (BCCP 2020).
|BCCP has a coffee growing alternative livelihood project. The project provides coffee seedlings to farmers and guidance on 'best practice' coffee farming. Unlike other cash crops (e.g. tobacco and rice), coffee is 'chimpanzee friendly' because farmers establish coffee in existing gardens rather than cutting new gardens in forest or wetlands, and chimpanzees and other primates do not eat any part of the coffee plant. Coffee matures after 2-3 years and the harvest can contribute significantly to household incomes (BCCP 2020).
|Ongoing (2020)
|Ongoing (2020)
|-
|-
|2. Counter-wildlife crime
|3. Energy production & mining
|2.13 Provide sustainable alternative livelihoods; establish fish- or domestic meat farms
|Not reported
|
|
|-
|4. Transportation & service corridors
|Not reported
|
|
|-
|5. Biological resource use
|5.17. Provide sustainable alternative livelihoods; establish fish- or domestic meat farms
|BCCP has an extensive tree planting program in Bulindi since 2015, including raising indigenous tree species for habitat enrichment, coffee as an alternative livelihood, and fast-growing timber species for sustainable household woodlots. The woodlots provide local households with an alternative source of wood and alternative income from timber sales, reducing reliance on remaining natural forest (BCCP 2020).
|BCCP has an extensive tree planting program in Bulindi since 2015, including raising indigenous tree species for habitat enrichment, coffee as an alternative livelihood, and fast-growing timber species for sustainable household woodlots. The woodlots provide local households with an alternative source of wood and alternative income from timber sales, reducing reliance on remaining natural forest (BCCP 2020).
|Bulindi Chimpanzee and Community Project
|Ongoing (2020)
|-
|6. Human intrusion & disturbance
|Not reported
|
|
|-
|7. Natural system modifications
|Not reported
|
|
|-
|-
|3. Species health
|8. Invasive & other problematic species, genes, diseases
|3.1 Wear face-masks to avoid transmission of viral and bacterial diseases to primates
|8.7. Wear face-masks to avoid transmission of viral and bacterial diseases to primates
|Strict use of face masks and hand sanitisers by researchers and local 'Chimpanzee Monitors' entering forest areas, and when in proximity to chimpanzees; bespoke health and hygiene training provided to all staff (BCCP, unpublished data).
|Strict use of face masks and hand sanitisers by researchers and local 'Chimpanzee Monitors' entering forest areas, and when in proximity to chimpanzees; bespoke health and hygiene training provided to all staff (BCCP, unpublished data).
|Ongoing (2020)
|Ongoing (2020)
|-
|-
|4. Education & awareness
|9. Pollution
|4.1 Educate local communities about apes and sustainable use
|Not reported
|
|
|-
|10. Education & Awareness
|10.1. Educate local communities about primates and sustainable use
|BCCP provides conservation outreach for primary schoolchildren. The program aims to foster interest, empathy, and understanding of chimpanzees, interest in tree planting and awareness of importance of natural forest, and promotes 'safe' behavior for children encountering chimpanzees (BCCP 2020).
|BCCP provides conservation outreach for primary schoolchildren. The program aims to foster interest, empathy, and understanding of chimpanzees, interest in tree planting and awareness of importance of natural forest, and promotes 'safe' behavior for children encountering chimpanzees (BCCP 2020).
|Ongoing (2020)
|Ongoing (2020)
|-
|-
|5. Protection & restoration
|11. Habitat Protection
|5.6 Habitat restoration
|11.8. Plant indigenous trees to re-establish natural tree communities in clear-cut areas
|BCCP has an extensive tree planting program in Bulindi, including raising indigenous tree species for habitat enrichment and restoration since 2015 (BCCP 2020).
|BCCP has an extensive tree planting program in Bulindi, including raising indigenous tree species for habitat enrichment and restoration since 2015 (BCCP 2020).
|Ongoing (2020)
|Ongoing (2020)
|-
|-
|6. Species management
|12. Species Management
|Not reported
|Not reported
|
|
|
|
|-
|-
|7. Economic & other incentives
|13. Livelihood; Economic & Other Incentives
|7.1 Provide monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g., REDD, alternative income, employment)
|13.1. Provide monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g. REDD, employment)
|BCCP supports local households that own areas of natural forest used by the chimpanzees by sponsoring their children's education. Since inception in 2015, this school child sponsorship scheme has been instrumental in conserving remaining patches of riparian forest, following 2 decades of forest clearance in Bulindi (BCCP 2020).
|BCCP supports local households that own areas of natural forest used by the chimpanzees by sponsoring their children's education. Since inception in 2015, this school child sponsorship scheme has been instrumental in conserving remaining patches of riparian forest, following 2 decades of forest clearance in Bulindi (BCCP 2020).
|Bulindi Chimpanzee and Community Project
|Ongoing (2020)
|-
|-
|7. Economic & other incentives
|13. Livelihood; Economic & Other Incentives
|7.2 Provide non-monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g., better education, infrastructure development)
|13.2. Provide non-monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g. better education, infrastructure development)
|The Bulindi Chimpanzee & Community Project (BCCP) was initiated in 2015 to help conserve the chimpanzees in Bulindi and their habitat, and provide livelihood support to local households. The project has since expanded to other regions in the [[Budongo-Bugoma corridor]] where chimpanzees survive in unprotected habitat around villages. Project activities include supporting local residents through livelihood alternatives to deforestation, extensive tree planting, investing in children’s education, and provision of boreholes and energy stoves, helping reduce reliance on remaining natural forest and increase tolerance of chimpanzees. In parallel, BCCP conducts long-term research and monitoring of the chimpanzees to understand adaptations to human-driven environmental change and mitigate threats to their welfare and survival (BCCP 2020).
|The Bulindi Chimpanzee & Community Project (BCCP) was initiated in 2015 to help conserve the chimpanzees in Bulindi and their habitat, and provide livelihood support to local households. The project has since expanded to other regions in the [[Budongo-Bugoma corridor]] where chimpanzees survive in unprotected habitat around villages. Project activities include supporting local residents through livelihood alternatives to deforestation, extensive tree planting, investing in children’s education, and provision of boreholes and energy stoves, helping reduce reliance on remaining natural forest and increase tolerance of chimpanzees. In parallel, BCCP conducts long-term research and monitoring of the chimpanzees to understand adaptations to human-driven environmental change and mitigate threats to their welfare and survival (BCCP 2020).
|Bulindi Chimpanzee and Community Project
|Ongoing (2020)
|-
|-
|7. Economic & other incentives
|13. Livelihood; Economic & Other Incentives
|7.2 Provide non-monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g., better education, infrastructure development)
|13.2. Provide non-monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g. better education, infrastructure development)
|In partnership with water charities (BridgIT, Drop4Drop and Suubi Community Projects–Uganda), BCCP constructs village boreholes (water wells) for local communities to improve health and quality of life by providing residents in chimpanzee areas with access to clean, safe water away from the forest. The wells reduce negative encounters between chimpanzees and people (often children) collecting water at forest streams. BCCP also constructs energy-saving stoves for residents, helping reduce household fuel consumption, alleviating pressure on chimpanzee habitat, while providing households with safer, more efficient cook stoves.
|In partnership with water charities (BridgIT, Drop4Drop and Suubi Community Projects–Uganda), BCCP constructs village boreholes (water wells) for local communities to improve health and quality of life by providing residents in chimpanzee areas with access to clean, safe water away from the forest. The wells reduce negative encounters between chimpanzees and people (often children) collecting water at forest streams. BCCP also constructs energy-saving stoves for residents, helping reduce household fuel consumption, alleviating pressure on chimpanzee habitat, while providing households with safer, more efficient cook stoves.
|Bulindi Chimpanzee and Community Project, BridgIT, Drop4Drop, Suubi Community Projects Uganda
|Ongoing (2020)
|-
|-
|}
|}
[[Conservation activities]]
[[Conservation activities list (Junker et al. 2017)]]
= Challenges = <!-- Overview of challenges in ape conservation -->
[[File: Two adult males sharing a cultivated jackfruit at Bulindi (Photo by Jacqueline Rohen)_2.jpg | 300px | thumb| right |Two adult males sharing a cultivated jackfruit at Bulindi (Photo by Jacqueline Rohen)]]
[[File: Two adult males sharing a cultivated jackfruit at Bulindi (Photo by Jacqueline Rohen)_2.jpg | 300px | thumb| right |Two adult males sharing a cultivated jackfruit at Bulindi (Photo by Jacqueline Rohen)]]
Ongoing habitat conversion (clearance of riparian forest for agriculture) (McLennan & Plumptre 2012; McLennan & Hill 2015; McLennan et al. 2020).
Ongoing habitat conversion (clearance of riparian forest for agriculture) (McLennan & Plumptre 2012; McLennan & Hill 2015; McLennan et al. 2020).
High levels of human-chimpanzee interactions including habitual feeding on agricultural crops by chimpanzees, frequent harassment of chimpanzees by local residents, occasional chimpanzee aggression towards humans, especially children (McLennan 2008; McLennan & Hill 2012, 2013).
High levels of human-chimpanzee interactions including habitual feeding on agricultural crops by chimpanzees, frequent harassment of chimpanzees by local residents, occasional chimpanzee aggression towards humans, especially children (McLennan 2008; McLennan & Hill 2012, 2013).
Human-human conflicts, i.e. differences between groups or individuals (e.g. local residents and conservation practitioners) about the management and conservation of chimpanzees; politicisation of chimpanzees by local politicians (McLennan & Hill 2013).
Human-human conflicts, i.e. differences between groups or individuals (e.g. local residents and conservation practitioners) about the management and conservation of chimpanzees; politicization of chimpanzees by local politicians (McLennan & Hill 2013).
'''Table 5. Challenges reported for Bulindi Area'''
'''Table 5. Challenges reported for Bulindi'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="challenges-table"
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="challenges-table"
!align="left"|Category <!-- PLEASE DO NOT CHANGE THE CATEGORIES -->
!align="left"|Challenge <!-- Do not change categories -->
!Challenge
!Source <!-- Source for challenge mentioned -->
!Source
|-
|-
|3. Engaged community
|Lack of financial means
|McLennan pers. comm.
|
|-
|-
|4. Institutional support
|Lack of national protection
|McLennan 2008
|McLennan 2008
|-
|-
|4. Institutional support
|Lack of law enforcement
|McLennan 2008
|McLennan 2008
|-
|-
|}
|}
= Research activities = <!-- Overview of research activities -->
= Research activities = <!-- Overview of research activities -->
Chimpanzees in Bulindi were first studied in 2006-2008. Research resumed in 2012 and continues to the present; since 2015 the chimpanzees are habituated. Research topics include: (1) chimpanzees dietary and behavioral responses to habitat loss, agricultural expansion and increased contact with humans, including crop feeding and human-chimpanzee interactions (e.g. McLennan & Hill 2010; McLennan 2013; McLennan & Hockings 2014; McLennan et al. 2019a, 2020); (2) attitudes towards chimpanzees among local residents and constraints to coexistence (e.g. McLennan & Hill 2012, 2013); (3) threats to chimpanzee survival (e.g. McLennan et al. 2012; McLennan & Asiimwe 2016; Cibot et al. 2019a); (4) health and disease (e.g. McLennan et al. 2017, 2018); (5) tool use (McLennan 2011a; McLennan et al. 2019b); and (6) paternity and reproductive success (Cibot et al. 2019b; McCarthy et al. 2020).
Chimpanzees in Bulindi were first studied in 2006-2008. Research resumed in 2012 and continues to the present; since 2015 the chimpanzees are habituated. Research topics include: (1) chimpanzees dietary and behavioral responses to habitat loss, agricultural expansion and increased contact with humans, including crop feeding and human-chimpanzee interactions (e.g. McLennan & Hill 2010; McLennan 2013; McLennan & Hockings 2014; McLennan et al. 2019a, 2020); (2) attitudes towards chimpanzees among local residents and constraints to coexistence (e.g. McLennan & Hill 2012, 2013); (3) threats to chimpanzee survival (e.g. McLennan et al. 2012; McLennan & Asiimwe 2016; Cibot et al. 2019a); (4) health and disease (e.g. McLennan et al. 2017, 2018); (5) tool use (McLennan 2011a; McLennan et al. 2019b); and (6) paternity and reproductive success (Cibot et al. 2019b; McCarthy et al. 2020).
[[File: Members of the Bulindi chimp community resting in gardens (Photo by Matthew McLennan)_2.jpg | 350px | thumb| right | Members of the Bulindi chimp community resting in gardens (Photo by Matthew McLennan)]]
[[File: Members of the Bulindi chimp community resting in gardens (Photo by Matthew McLennan)_2.jpg | 350px | thumb| right | Members of the Bulindi chimp community resting in gardens (Photo by Matthew McLennan)]]
===Documented behaviours=== <!-- List of any behaviours observed at the site, including citations -->
===Documented behaviours=== <!-- List of any behaviours observed at the site, including citations -->
'''Table 7. Ape behaviors reported for Bulindi Area'''
'''Table 6. Ape behaviors reported for Bulindi'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="behaviors-table"
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="behaviors-table"
!align="left"|Behavior
!align="left"|Behavior
|-
|-
|}
|}
=External links=
=External links=
[https://www.instagram.com/bulindichimps/ Bulindi Chimpanzees Instagram]<br>
[https://www.instagram.com/bulindichimps/ Bulindi Chimpanzees Instagram]<br>
[https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/2019/11/chimps-and-people-are-clashing-in-rural-uganda-feature/ Bulindi National Geographic]<br>
[https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/2019/11/chimps-and-people-are-clashing-in-rural-uganda-feature/ Bulindi National Geographic]<br>
===Relevant datasets===
[http://apesportal.eva.mpg.de/database/archiveMap A.P.E.S Portal]
= References =
= References =
McLennan, M. R., Lorenti, G. A., Sabiiti, T., & Bardi, M. (2020). Forest fragments become farmland: dietary response of wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) to fast‐changing anthropogenic landscapes. American Journal of Primatology, 82(4), e23090. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.23090 <br>
McLennan, M. R., Lorenti, G. A., Sabiiti, T., & Bardi, M. (2020). Forest fragments become farmland: dietary response of wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) to fast‐changing anthropogenic landscapes. American Journal of Primatology, 82(4), e23090. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.23090 <br>
Ota, N., Hasegawa, H., McLennan, M. R., Kooriyama, T., Sato, H., Pebsworth, P. A., & Huffman, M. A. (2015). Molecular identification of Oesophagostomum spp. from ‘village’ chimpanzees in Uganda and their phylogenetic relationship with those of other primates. Royal Society Open Science, 2(11), 150471.https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.150471 <br>
Ota, N., Hasegawa, H., McLennan, M. R., Kooriyama, T., Sato, H., Pebsworth, P. A., & Huffman, M. A. (2015). Molecular identification of Oesophagostomum spp. from ‘village’ chimpanzees in Uganda and their phylogenetic relationship with those of other primates. Royal Society Open Science, 2(11), 150471.https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.150471 <br>
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'''Page completed by: '''Matthew McLennan, Maureen McCarthy & Jack Lester''' Date:''' 04/01/2021 <!-- If you don't want to add your name, you can add "A.P.E.S. Wiki team" -->
'''Page completed by: '''Matthew McLennan, Maureen McCarthy & Jack Lester''' Date:''' 04/01/2021 <!-- If you don't want to add your name, you can add "A.P.E.S. Wiki team" -->