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Line 6:
Line 6:
!Method
|376-2,632
|1.94-2.34
−|
|6.18
−|
|TBC+|5.28 nests/km
|7.1 independent events / camera trap days
|376-2,632
|6.18
−|
|-
−|1 Residential & commercial development
−|1.1 Residential areas
−|Medium
−|Illegal construction of settlements (Quecuta pers. comm. 2023).
−|Ongoing (2023)
−|-
−|2 Agriculture & aquaculture
−|2.1 Annual & perennial non-timber crops
−|High
−|Expansion of cashew and slash-and-burn agriculture (Hockings & Sousa 2013, Quecuta pers. comm. 2023)
−|2013-Ongoing (2023)
−|-
−|3 Energy production & mining
−|
−|Not reported
−|
−|
−|-
−|4 Transportation & service corridors
−|4.1 Roads & railroads
−|High
−|A road is being upgraded to be passable also during the rainy season (Hockings pers. com.)
−|Ongoing (2019)
−|-
−|5 Biological resource use
−|5.1 Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals
−|Low
−|Chimpanzees with snare injuries have been recorded on camera traps (Hockings, Bersacola, Bessa, Ramon unpublished data). Some killings of chimpanzees by farmers occurred when they foraged oranges (Hockings & Sousa, 2013).
−|Ongoing (2013)
−|-
−|5 Biological resource use
−|5.2 Gathering terrestrial plants
−|Low
−|Palm oil is frequently collected (Sousa et al. 2011a, Costa et al. 2017), and there is overlap in use of wild plants by chimpanzees and humans (Hockings et al. in review)
−|Ongoing (2017)
−|-
−|5 Biological resource use
−|5.3 Logging & wood harvesting
−|High
−|Wood harvesting for charcoal production (Quecuta pers. comm. 2023).
−|Ongoing (2023)
|
−|-
−|7 Natural system modifications
−|7.1 Fire & fire suppression
−|High
−|Slash-and-burn agriculture (Hockings & Sousa 2013)
−|Ongoing (2013)
−|-
−|8 Invasive & other problematic species, genes & diseases
−|
−|Unknown
−|There is ongoing work to investigate disease prevalence in chimpanzees (Hockings et al. in prep.)
+ + + + + + +
−
−|High (more than 70% of population affected)
−|Human-chimpanzee interactions are frequent, though most are not direct (i.e. without direct physical contact). However, human interactions with other wildlife, including hunting, keeping non-human primates as pets, and releasing them back into the wild, may affect chimpanzees. Leprosy, caused by Mycobacterium leprae, has been identified in chimpanzees across Cantanhez (Hockings et al., 2021). Although the origin of the disease is human, it is unclear whether transmission to chimpanzees occurred directly from humans, possibly from a released pet chimpanzee, or through another animal host or the environment. The discovery of leprosy in chimpanzees in Cantanhez underscores the potentially high risk of human-derived infectious disease outbreaks in this population. To reduce the threat of disease transmission (especially of respiratory viruses) and negative interactions, chimpanzees have not been habituated for research or for tourism.
−|2010s-Ongoing
−|-
−|3 Energy production & mining
−|3.2.3 Artisanal mining
|11.2 Droughts
−|Present (unknown severity)
−|Dry seasons are becoming longer, with the rainy season, which usually begins in mid-May, now starting several weeks later. Residents report an increasing lack of freshwater during the second half of the dry season (beginning in March), with natural water sources drying out more quickly or previously permanent sources now drying out. It is unclear to what extent this impacts chimpanzees and the implications for human-chimpanzee coexistence.
|-
−|5 Biological resource use
−|5.3 Logging & wood harvesting
|-
−|
−|
−|
−|
−|
|-
−|5 Protection & restoration
−|5.2 Legally protect ape habitat
−|Designated as national park since 2007 (UNEP-WCMC & IUCN 2019)
−|
−|2007-Ongoing (2023)
−|-
−|7 Economic & other incentives
−|7.1 Provide monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g., REDD, alternative income, employment)
−|Local people are employed to conduct patrols (IBAP 2018)
−|
−|Ongoing (2018)
−|-
−|8 Permanent presence
−|8.2 Run tourist projects and ensure permanent human presence at site
−|Low levels of tourism (Sousa et al. 2014). Ecotourism has existed in the area since 1996 (Quecuta pers. Comm. 2023).
−|
−|1996-Ongoing (2017)
−|-
−|1 Development impact mitigation
−|1.13 Avoid/minimize logging of important food tree species for primates
−|Not formally implemented, but when clearing agricultural fields, local farmers in Cantanhez tend to avoid cutting large trees and palms that are important food sources for chimpanzees and are also used by people for food, medicine, shade, and spiritual reasons. Species protected by farmers include Parinari excelsa, Ceiba pentandra, and Elaeis guineensis (Hockings et al. 2020).
−|Informally implemented by local farmers
−|1990s – Ongoing (2024)
+ +
−
−
−
−
−
−
−|
|-
−|
−|Not reported
−|
−|
|-
−|1 Site management
−|
−|
−|
−|-
−|2 Resources and capacity
−|
−|
−|
−|-
−|3 Engaged community
−|
−|
−|
−|-
−|4 Institutional support
−|
−|
−|
−|-
−|5 Ecological context
−|
−|
−|
−|-
−|6 Safety and stability
−|
−|
−|
There are ongoing research efforts in Cantanhez NP, including studying the behavior of specific chimpanzee communities and investigating chimpanzee ranging in relation to food availability and human activities through camera trap based spatiotemporal models (Hockings & Sousa 2012; Hockings & Sousa 2013; Bessa, Sousa & Hockings 2015; Bersacola et al. 2018; Vieira et al 2019; Bersacola 2019 (PhD thesis); Bessa in prep (PhD thesis)).+Nesting in palm oil trees was reported (Sousa et al. 2011a) and there is ongoing research on chimpanzee behavioral variation across communities (Bessa et al. in prep.).+
|-
−|Not reported
−|
Bessa J, Sousa C, Hockings KJ. 2015. Feeding ecology of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) inhabiting a forest-mangrove-savanna-agricultural matrix at Caiquene-Cadique, Cantanhez Forest National Park, Guinea-Bissau. American Journal of Primatology77:651–665 DOI 10.1002/ajp.22388.+ +Brugiere D, Badjinca I, Silva C, Serra A. 2009. Distribution of chimpanzees and interactions with humans in Guinea-Bissau and Western Guinea, West Africa. Folia Primatologica 80:353–358.+ +Casanova, C. and C. Sousa. 2006. Distribuição das comuni- dades de chimpanzés (Pan troglodytes verus) na região costeira da República da Guiné-Bissau e a sua relação com as comunidades humanas locais. Mission Report (March 2006). Lisboa, Portugal.+ +Catarino, L. 2004. Fitogeografia da Guiné-Bissau. PhD thesis, Instituto Superior de Agronomia, Lisboa.+ +Costa S, Casanova C & Lee P. 2017. What Does Conservation Mean for Women? the Case of the Cantanhez Forest National Park. Conservation and Society, 15(1), 168–178. https://doi.org/10.4103/cs.cs+ +Gippoliti S, Dell’Omo G. 1996. Primates of the Cantanhez Forest and the Cacine Basin, Guinea-Bissau. Oryx 30:74–80.+ +Gippoliti S, Dell’Omo G. 2003. Primates of Guinea-Bissau, West Africa: distribution and conservation status. Primate Conservation 19:73–77.+ +Gippoliti, S. and G. Dell’Omo. 2003. Primates of Guinea- Bissau, West Africa: distribution and conservation status. Primate Conserv. (19): 73–77.+ +Gippoliti, S., D. Embalo and C. Sousa. 2003. Chimpanzee conservation status in Guinea-Bissau. In: West African Chimpanzees. Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan, R. Kormos, C. Boesch, M. I. Bakarr and T. M. Butynski. (eds.), pp.55–61. IUCN/SSC Primate Special- ist Group, Gland, Switzerland, and Cambridge, UK+ +Hockings KJ & Sousa C. 2012. Differential utilization of cashew—a low-conflict crop—bysympatric humans and chimpanzees.Oryx46:375–381DOI 10.1017/S003060531100130X+ +Hockings KJ & Sousa C. 2013. Human-Chimpanzee Sympatry and Interactions in Cantanhez Forest National Park, Guinea-Bissau: Current Research and Future Directions. Primate Conservation, 26(1), 57–65. https://doi.org/10.1896/052.026.0104+ +IBAP. 2018. Regulamento interno Parque Nacional de Cantanhez+ +IUCN & Chimbo. 2016. The conservation of the Savannah Chimpanzees of Guinea Bissau and Senegal. (February), 1–19. Retrieved from http://chimbo.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/The-conservation-of-the-Savannah-Chimpanzees-of-Guinea-Bissau-and-Senegal-Report-Workshop-Beli-14-16.2.2016.pdf+ +Kormos, R., C. Boesch, M. I. Bakarr and T. M. Butynski. 2003. West African Chimpanzees. Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan. IUCN/SSC Primate Specialist Group. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland, and Cambridge, UK+ +Minhos et al. 2016. Genetic consequences of human forest exploitation in two colobus monkeys in Guinea Bissau. Biological Conservation. 194:194-208.+ +Rui M. Sá, Petrášová J., Pomajbíková K., Profousová I., Petrželková K. J., Sousa C., Cable J., Bruford M. W., Modrý D. 2013. Gastrointestinal symbionts of chimpanzees in Cantanhez Forest National Park, guinea-bissau with respect to habitat fragmentation, American journal of primatology, https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.22170+ + +Sousa, J., Barata, A. V., Sousa, C., Casanova, C. C. N., & Vicente, L. 2011. Chimpanzee oil-palm use in southern Cantanhez Forest National Park, Guinea-Bissau. American Journal of Primatology, 73(5), 485–497. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.20926+
−Sousa J, Vicente L, Gippoliti S, Casanova C, Sousa C. 2014. Local knowledge and perceptions of chimpanzees in Cantanhez Forest National Park, Guinea-Bissau. American Journal of Primatology 76:122–134.
−
−Torres J, Brito JC, Vasconcelos MJ, Catarino L, Gonçalves J, et al. (2010) Ensemble models of habitat suitability relate chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) conservation to forest and landscape dynamics in western Africa. Biological Conservation 143: 416–425.
−
−UNEP-WCMC, IUCN. 2019. Protected Planet: The World Database on Protected Areas (WDPA), Cambridge, UK: UNEP-WCMC and IUCN Online: [https://www.protectedplanet.net/cantanhez-forest-national-park www.protectedplanet.net]
−
−Bersacola, E., 2019. Zooming in on human-wildlife coexistence: primate community responses in a shared agroforest landscape in Guinea-Bissau (PhD). Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, UK.
−Bersacola, E., Hill, C.M., Hockings, K.J., 2021a. Chimpanzees balance resources and risk in an anthropogenic landscape of fear. Scientific Reports 11, 4569. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-83852-3
−Bersacola, E., Hill, C.M., Nijman, V., Hockings, K.J., 2022. Examining primate community occurrence patterns in agroforest landscapes using arboreal and terrestrial camera traps. Landsc Ecol 37, 3103–3121. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-022-01524-7
−Bersacola, E., Hockings, K.J., 2023. Action plan for the conservation of medium- and large-sized terrestrial mammals in Cantanhez National Park, Guinea-Bissau (2023-2033). IBAP, Bissau, Guinea-Bissau.
−Bersacola, E., Houldcroft, A., Clarke, L., Jaló, M., Sanhá, A., Quecuta, Q., Benante, J.E., Regalla de Barros, A., De Rivera Ortega, O.R., Hockings, K.J., in prep. Improving great ape monitoring across the heterogeneous continuum: A spatially explicit joint model using standard surveys.
−Bersacola, E., McLennan, M.R., Bessa, J., Camara, H., Jaló, M., Kiiza, V., Mamy, G., Mpanga, N., Oelze, V.M., Ramon, M., Sanhá, A., van Holstein, L., Fitzgerald, M., Stewart, F.A., Koops, K., Hockings, K.J., in review. Camera traps document infant corpse carrying behaviour in multiple unhabituated chimpanzee populations. Ecology and Evolution.
−Bersacola, E., Parathian, H., Frazão-Moreira, A., Jaló, M., Sanhá, A., Regalla, A., Saíd, A.R., Quecuta, Q., Camará, S.T., Quade, S.M.F.F., Jaquite, S.M., Lopes, A.G., Patrono, L.V., Ramon, M., Bessa, J., Godley, B.J., Bonneaud, C., Leendertz, F.H., Hockings, K.J., 2021b. Developing an Evidence-Based Coexistence Strategy to Promote Human and Wildlife Health in a Biodiverse Agroforest Landscape. Front. Conserv. Sci. 2, 735367. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcosc.2021.735367
−Bessa, J., Biro, D., Hockings, K., 2022. Inter-community behavioural variation confirmed through indirect methods in four neighbouring chimpanzee communities in Cantanhez NP, Guinea-Bissau. Royal Society Open Science 9, 211518. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.211518
−Bessa, J., Hockings, K., Biro, D., 2021. First evidence of chimpanzee extractive tool use in Cantanhez, Guinea-Bissau: Cross-community variation in honey dipping. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution 9, 180. https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2021.625303
−Bessa, J., Sousa, C., Hockings, K.J., 2015. Feeding ecology of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) inhabiting a forest-mangrove-savanna-agricultural matrix at Caiquene-Cadique, Cantanhez National Park, Guinea-Bissau. American Journal of Primatology 77, 651–665. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.22388
−Hockings, K.J., Bersacola, E., 2022. Darwin Initiative Main project 26-018: Final report.
−Hockings, K.J., Parathian, H., Bessa, J., Frazão-Moreira, A., 2020. Extensive Overlap in the Selection of Wild Fruits by Chimpanzees and Humans: Implications for the Management of Complex Social-Ecological Systems. Front. Ecol. Evol. 8, 123. https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2020.00123
−Hockings, K.J., Sousa, C., 2013. Human-Chimpanzee Sympatry and Interactions in Cantanhez National Park, Guinea-Bissau: Current Research and Future Directions. prco 26, 57–65. https://doi.org/10.1896/052.026.0104
−Houldcroft, A., Lindgren, F., Sanhá, A., Jaló, M., Regalla de Barros, A., Hockings, K.J., Bersacola, E., in review. Joint spatial modeling of cluster size and density for a heavily hunted primate persisting in a heterogeneous landscape. Ecography.
−IBAP, 2018a. Plano de Gestão do Parque Nacional Cantanhez. Instituto da Biodiversidade e das Áreas Protegidas, Bissau, Guinea-Bissau.
−IBAP, 2018b. Parque Nacional de Cantanhez: regulamento interno. Instituto da Biodiversidade e das Áreas Protegidas, Bissau, Guinea-Bissau.
−Jones, E., Ramon, M., Bessa, J., Chesney, C., Bowland, A., Regalla de Barros, A., Bersacola, E., Hockings, K.J., in prep. Camera traps to detect snare injuries in Critically Endangered chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) across Cantanhez National Park, Guinea-Bissau.
−Parathian, H.E., McLennan, M.R., Hill, C.M., Frazão-Moreira, A., Hockings, K.J., 2018. Breaking through disciplinary barriers: human–wildlife interactions and multispecies ethnography. Int J Primatol 39, 749–775. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10764-018-0027-9
−Pereira, S.C., Lopes, C., Pedro Pedroso, J., 2022. Mapping Cashew Orchards in Cantanhez National Park (Guinea-Bissau). Remote Sensing Applications: Society and Environment 26, 100746. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rsase.2022.100746
−Sousa, J., Ainslie, A., Hill, C.M., 2018. Sorcery and nature conservation. Environmental Conservation 45, 90–95. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0376892917000327
−Sousa, J., Hill, C.M., Ainslie, A., 2017. Chimpanzees, sorcery and contestation in a protected area in Guinea-Bissau. Social Anthropology 25, 364–379. https://doi.org/10.1111/1469-8676.12418
−Sousa, J., Vicente, L., Gippoliti, S., Casanova, C., Sousa, C., 2014. Local knowledge and perceptions of chimpanzees in Cantanhez National Park, Guinea-Bissau. American Journal of Primatology 76, 122–134. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.22215
−
= Summary =
= Summary =
−<div style="float: right">{{#display_map: height=190px | width=300px | scrollzoom=off | zoom=5 | layers= OpenStreetMap, OpenTopoMap|11.19, -15.12~[[Cantanhez National Park]]~Pan troglodytes verus}}</div>
+<div style="float: right">{{#display_map: height=190px | width=300px | scrollzoom=off | zoom=5 | layers= OpenStreetMap, OpenTopoMap|11.19, -15.12~[[Cantanhez National Park]]~'Pan troglodytes verus''}}</div>
* Western chimpanzees (''Pan troglodytes verus'') are present in Cantanhez National Park.
* Western chimpanzees (''Pan troglodytes verus'') are present in Cantanhez National Park.
* It has been estimated that between 376 and 2,632 individuals occur at the site.
* It has been estimated that between 376 and 2,632 individuals occur at the site.
Line 18:
Line 18:
= Site characteristics =
= Site characteristics =
−Cantanhez is one of the last remaining fragments of humid forest in West Africa and identified as one of the 200 most important ecoregions in the world (World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF)) and as one of seven priority areas in West Africa for chimpanzee conservation efforts (Kormos et al. 2003). The Cantanhez National Park (CNP) is a mosaic of settlements, agricultural fields, sub-humid forest, secondary forest, mangrove, and savanna (Catarino 2004). A range of non-human primate species occur in the CFNP, including Campbell’s monkey (''Cercopithecus campbelli''), green monkey (''Chlorocebus sabaeus''), western black and white colobus (''Colobus polykomos''), bush baby (''Galago senegalensis''), Demidoff’s galago (''Galagoides demidoff''), Guinea baboon (''Papio papio''), and Temminck’s red colobus (''Piliocolobus badius temminckii'', Bersacola 2019, Hockings & Sousa 2013). The rainfall in Guinea-Bissau is bimodal with a long dry season from November to May and a rainy season from mid-May to October (Catarino 2004). An average of 1400–2500 mm of rain falls per year and temperatures are at their lowest in January (24.7°C) and their highest in July (28.0°C) (Gippoliti et al. 2003).
+Cantanhez is one of the last remaining fragments of humid forest in West Africa and identified as one of the 200 most important ecoregions in the world (World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF)) and as one of seven priority areas in West Africa for chimpanzee conservation efforts (Kormos et al. 2003). The Cantanhez National Park (CNP) is a mosaic of settlements, agricultural fields, sub-humid forest, secondary forest, mangrove, and savanna (Catarino 2004). The rainfall in Guinea-Bissau is bimodal with a long dry season from November to May and a rainy season from mid-May to October (Catarino 2004). An average of 1400–2500 mm of rain falls per year and temperatures are at their lowest in January (24.7°C) and their highest in July (28.0°C) (Gippoliti et al. 2003). A range of non-human primate species occur in the CFNP, including Campbell’s monkey (''Cercopithecus campbelli''), green monkey (''Chlorocebus sabaeus''), western black and white colobus (''Colobus polykomos''), bush baby (''Galago senegalensis''), Demidoff’s galago (''Galagoides demidoff''), and Temminck’s red colobus (''Piliocolobus badius temminckii'', Bersacola 2019, Hockings & Sousa 2013). Western red colobus (''Piliocolobus badius temminckii'') and king colobus (''Colobus polykomos''), both classified as Endangered, are present within some of the protected forest blocks in Cantanhez NP. The main threats are habitat loss and hunting, and these primates are rapidly disappearing from Cantanhez NP. Other conservation important species present in Cantanhez NP include the Guinea baboon (''Papio papio'', Near Threatened) that occurs within some forest blocks in southern Cantanhez NP, and the African forest elephant (''Loxodonta cyclotis'', Critically Endangered) which uses the northern parts of Cantanhez NP as a migration corridor. For other mamma species present and their conservation status, please see Bersacola & Hockings (2023) "Action plan for the conservation of medium- and large-sized terrestrial mammals in Cantanhez National Park, Guinea-Bissau".
'''Table 1. Basic site information for Cantanhez National Park'''
'''Table 1. Basic site information for Cantanhez National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Site_characteristics-table"
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Site_characteristics-table"
|Species
|Species
−|Pan troglodytes verus
+|'Pan troglodytes verus''
|-
|-
|Area
|Area
−|1057.67 km²
+|1,057.67 km²
|-
|-
|Coordinates
|Coordinates
Line 51:
Line 51:
!Species
!Species
!Year
!Year
+!Occurrence
+!Encounter or vistation rate (nests/km; ind/day)
+!Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI)
!Abundance estimate (95% CI)
!Abundance estimate (95% CI)
−!Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI)
+!Survey area
−!Encounter rate (nests/km)
+!Sampling method
−!Area
+!Analytical framework
−!Source
!Source
!Comments
!Comments
Line 62:
Line 64:
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2003
|2003
−|
|
|
|
+|
+|376-2,632
|Cantanhez region (including areas outside the NP such as Cacine and Catio)
|Cantanhez region (including areas outside the NP such as Cacine and Catio)
|Reconnaissance walk
|Reconnaissance walk
+|
|Torres et al. 2010
|Torres et al. 2010
|Presence of chimpanzee nests recorded walking line transects, method for estimating population abundance not reported
|Presence of chimpanzee nests recorded walking line transects, method for estimating population abundance not reported
Line 73:
Line 77:
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2007
|2007
+|
+|
+|1.94-2.34
|33-40
|33-40
−|Cantanhez National Park
|Cantanhez National Park
|Unknown
|Unknown
−|Sousa (2007)
+|
+|Sousa 2007
|
|
|
|
Line 84:
Line 90:
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2007
|2007
+|
+|
+|6.18
|106
|106
−|4 forests (Caiquene, Cibe Cadique, Lautchande, Madina)
|4 forests (Caiquene, Cibe Cadique, Lautchande, Madina)
|Line transects
|Line transects
+|
|Sousa et al. 2011b
|Sousa et al. 2011b
|Total survey effort: 28.35km, no robust results, density estimates range between 1.1-6.18 weaned individuals/km² and between 376 to 2,632 chimpanzees
|Total survey effort: 28.35km, no robust results, density estimates range between 1.1-6.18 weaned individuals/km² and between 376 to 2,632 chimpanzees
|
|
|-
|-
−|Pan troglodytes verus
+|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2021
|2021
−|TBC
+|
−|0.74
−|0.74 nests/km
+|
+|
|Cantanhez National Park (550 km2)
|Cantanhez National Park (550 km2)
|Line transects
|Line transects
+|Distance sampling (decay time unknown)
|Cantanhez Chimpanzee Project; Bersacola et al (in prep)
|Cantanhez Chimpanzee Project; Bersacola et al (in prep)
|Final density estimates tbc
|Final density estimates tbc
|
|
|-
|-
−|Pan troglodytes verus
+|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2022
|2022
+|
+|5.28
|
|
|
|
−|Cantanhez National Park (708 km2)
|Cantanhez National Park (708 km2)
|Reconnaissance walk
|Reconnaissance walk
+|Predictive model
|IBAP, Cantanhez Chimpanzee Project; Bersacola et al (in prep)
|IBAP, Cantanhez Chimpanzee Project; Bersacola et al (in prep)
|Whole park grid-based survey where each 4km2 cell is covered once (>2km walked). Final estimates tbc.
|Whole park grid-based survey where each 4km2 cell is covered once (>2km walked). Final estimates tbc.
|
|
|-
|-
−|Pan troglodytes verus
+|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2016-2017
|2016-2017
+|
+|7.1
|
|
|
|
−|Central Cantanhez National Park (180 km2)
|Central Cantanhez National Park (180 km2)
|Camera trap
|Camera trap
−|Bersacola et al 2022)
+|Predictive model
−|Occupancy model. Occupancy probability 0.55 (±SE 0.07)
+|Bersacola et al 2022
+|Occupancy model. Occupancy probability 0.55 (±SE 0.07); 7.1 independent events / camera trap days.
|
|
|-
|-
−|Pan troglodytes verus
+|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2020-2022
|2020-2022
+|Present
|
|
|
|
Line 133:
Line 148:
|Cantanhez National Park (550 km2)
|Cantanhez National Park (550 km2)
|Camera trap
|Camera trap
+|Predictive model
|Cantanhez Chimpanzee Project; Bersacola et al (in prep)
|Cantanhez Chimpanzee Project; Bersacola et al (in prep)
−|Final density estimates tbc
+|Final density estimates tbc.
|
|
|-
|-
−|Pan troglodytes verus
+|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2003
|2003
−|
|
|
|
+|
+|376-2,632
|Cantanhez region (including areas outside the NP such as Cacine and Catio). Estimates are for Cantanhez National Park
|Cantanhez region (including areas outside the NP such as Cacine and Catio). Estimates are for Cantanhez National Park
|Survey data
|Survey data
−|Torres et al (2010)
+|Predictive model
+|Torres et al. 2010
|Based on habitat suitability model, and according to the three different scenarios of population density (range 0.5-3.5 ind/km2).
|Based on habitat suitability model, and according to the three different scenarios of population density (range 0.5-3.5 ind/km2).
|
|
|-
|-
−|Pan troglodytes verus
+|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2007
|2007
+|
+|
+|6.18
|106
|106
−|4 forests (Caiquene, Cibe Cadique, Lautchande, Madina) within Cantanhez National Park
|4 forests (Caiquene, Cibe Cadique, Lautchande, Madina) within Cantanhez National Park
|Line transects
|Line transects
−|Sousa et al (2011)
+|Distance sampling
+|Sousa et al. 2011
|
|
|
|
Line 172:
Line 192:
!Description
!Description
!Year of threat
!Year of threat
−|-
|-
|6 Human intrusions & disturbance
|6 Human intrusions & disturbance
Line 219:
Line 197:
|Absent
|Absent
|
|
−|
|
|-
|-
Line 245:
Line 211:
|
|
|-
|-
−|11 Climate change & severe weather
+|2 Agriculture & aquaculture
−|
+|2.1 Annual & perennial non-timber crops
−|Unknown
+|High (more than 70% of population affected)
−|
+|Expansion of cashew and slash-and-burn agriculture (Hockings & Sousa 2013, Quecuta pers. comm. 2023). Cashew plantations are replacing fallow and forested areas, driving deforestation and declines in wild food sources for chimpanzees (Hockings & Sousa 2013, Bersacola & Hockings 2023). In 2019, an estimated 24% of Cantanhez's core areas (coastal forest blocks and savannahriverine forest mosaics) have been lost to cashew and it is a main threat to chimpanzee conservation (Pereira et al. 2022, Cantanhez Chimpanzee Project unpubl. data).
−|
+|2013-Ongoing (2023)
|-
|-
−|12 Other threat
+|5 Biological resource use
−|12.1 Other threat
+|5.1.2 Unintentional effects (species is not the target)
−|High
+|High (more than 70% of population affected)
−|Capture of chimpanzee infants for pet trade (Quecuta pers. comm. 2023).
+|Wire cable snares set up to capture other mammals unintentionally harm chimpanzees. Camera trap data since 2015 show multiple individuals across several chimpanzee communities with signs of snare injuries (Jones et al in prep).
−|Ongoing (2023)
+|2015-Ongoing (2024)
|-
|-
−|2 Agriculture & aquaculture
+|8 Invasive & other problematic species, genes & diseases
−|2.1.2 Small-holder farming
+|8.4 Pathogens
−|High
+|High (more than 70% of population affected)
−|Cashew plantations are replacing fallow and forested areas, driving deforestation and declines in wild food sources for chimpanzees (Hockings and Sousa 2013; Bersacola and Hockings 2023). In 2019, an estimated 24% of Cantanhez's core areas (coastal forest blocks and savannah-riverine forest mosaics) have been lost to cashew and it is a main threat to chimpanzee conservation (Pereira et al 2022, Cantanhez Chimpanzee Project unpubl. data).
+|Human-chimpanzee interactions are frequent, though most are not direct (i.e. without direct physical contact). However, human interactions with other wildlife, including hunting, keeping non-human primates as pets, and releasing them back into the wild, may affect chimpanzees. Leprosy, caused by ''Mycobacterium leprae'', has been identified in chimpanzees across Cantanhez (Hockings et al. 2021). It is unclear whether transmission to chimpanzees occurred directly from humans, possibly from a released pet chimpanzee, or through another animal host or the environment. The discovery of leprosy in chimpanzees in Cantanhez underscores the potentially high risk of human-derived infectious disease outbreaks in this population. To reduce the threat of disease transmission (especially of respiratory viruses) and negative interactions, chimpanzees have not been habituated for research or for tourism (Bersacola & Hockings pers. obs. 2024).
−|2010s-Ongoing
+|2010-Ongoing (2024)
|-
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5 Biological resource use
−|5.1.5 Persecution/human wildlife conflict
+|5.2 Gathering terrestrial plants
−|Medium
+|Low (up to 30% of population affected)
−|Reports of conflict with chimpanzees usually increase during the orange fruiting season, when wild fruit is scarce and chimpanzees intensify the use of villages in search of orange and papaya (Bersacola et al 2021). Human retaliatory killings of chimpanzees are infrequent but do occur. Attacks by chimpanzees on local persons are currently rare but have the propensity to increase with increasing habitat loss and human-chimpanzee encounters.
+|Palm oil is frequently collected (Sousa et al. 2011a, Costa et al. 2017), and there is overlap in use of wild plants by chimpanzees and humans (Hockings et al. in review)
−|2015-Ongoing
+|Ongoing (2017)
|-
|-
|1 Residential & commercial development
|1 Residential & commercial development
|1.1 Residential areas
|1.1 Residential areas
−|Medium
+|Medium (30-70% of population affected)
−|The establishment of new settlements within Cantanhez is prohibited though sometimes occurs (Quecuta, pers. comm.). Additionally, many settlements are expanding, increasing the demand for areas to farm, and the likelihood of human interactions with chimpanzees.
+|Illegal construction of settlements (Quecuta pers. comm. 2023). The establishment of new settlements within Cantanhez is prohibited though sometimes occurs (Quecuta pers. comm. 2023). Additionally, many settlements are expanding, increasing the demand for areas to farm, and the likelihood of human interactions with chimpanzees. The widespread occurrence of chimpanzees near villages across the park has implications for the sustainability of human-chimpanzee coexistence due to competition over crops (particularly orange), potential risks to human safety (particularly children), and risks of disease transmission (Bersacola et al. 2021, Bersacola & Hockings 2023).
−|Ongoing (2023)
−|-
−|5 Biological resource use
−|5.1.5 Persecution/human wildlife conflict
−|Medium (30-70% of population affected)
−|Some killings of chimpanzees by farmers occurred when they foraged oranges (Hockings & Sousa, 2013). Reports of conflict with chimpanzees usually increase during the orange fruiting season, when wild fruit is scarce and chimpanzees intensify the use of villages in search of orange and papaya (Bersacola et al 2021). Human retaliatory killings of chimpanzees are infrequent but do occur. Attacks by chimpanzees on local persons are currently rare but have the propensity to increase with increasing habitat loss and human-chimpanzee encounters (Bersacola, Hockings & Quecuta pers. obs. 2024).
−|2013-Ongoing (2024)
−The widespread occurrence of chimpanzees near villages across the park has implications for the sustainability of human-chimpanzee coexistence due to competition over crops (particularly orange), potential risks to human safety (particularly children), and risks of disease transmission (Bersacola et al 2021; Bersacola and Hockings 2023).
−|Ongoing
|-
|-
−|4 Transportation & service corridors
+|3 Energy production & mining
−|4.1 Roads & railroads
+|3.2.3 Artisanal mining
|Present (unknown severity)
|Present (unknown severity)
−|Road renovations since 2018 across the park have increased the number and speed of vehicles, with inadequate speed-limiting measures in place to prevent wildlife road mortalities.
+|Small scale charcoal mining is present in the northern areas of the park. It is unclear to what extent this impacts chimpanzees (Bersacola & Hockings 2024).
−|2018-Ongoing
+|Ongoing (2024)
|-
|-
−|
+|5 Biological resource use
−|5.1.2 Unintentional effects (species being assessed is not the target)
+|5.1.4 Capture for the live animal trade
−|High
+|Present (unknown severity)
−|Wire cable snares set up to capture other mammals unintentionally harm chimpanzees. Camera trap data since 2015 show multiple individuals across several chimpanzee communities with signs of snare injuries (Jones et al in prep).
+|Capture of chimpanzee infants for pet trade (Quecuta pers. comm. 2023). The pet trade of chimpanzees in Guinea-Bissau is small compared to other countries, with fewer than 10 captive individuals identified between 2016 and 2024. Contextual information about some of these captive chimpanzees suggests that they originated from the southern part of the country, possibly including Cantanhez (Bersacola & Hockings pers. obs. 2024).
−|2015-Ongoing
+|2015-Ongoing (2024)
|-
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5 Biological resource use
−|5.1.4 Capture for the live animal trade
+|5.3 Logging & wood harvesting
−|Low
+|Present (unknown severity)
−|The pet trade of chimpanzees in Guinea-Bissau is small compared to other countries, with fewer than 10 captive individuals identified between 2016 and 2024. Contextual information about some of these captive chimpanzees suggests that they originated from the southern part of the country, possibly including Cantanhez.
+|Wood harvesting for charcoal production (Quecuta pers. comm. 2023). Logging is prohibited within protected forests, and subject to legal permits within buffer zones. No commercial logging is allowed within the National Park. However, illegal logging is present in some parts of the park, particularly of African fan palm (''Borassus aethiopum'') which can be sold commercially for construction (Bersacola & Hockings 2024).
−|2015-Possibly ongoing
+|Ongoing (2023)
|-
|-
|7 Natural system modifications
|7 Natural system modifications
|7.1 Fire & fire suppression
|7.1 Fire & fire suppression
|Present (unknown severity)
|Present (unknown severity)
−|Fires set at the end of the dry season to clear land for shifting agriculture can sometimes become out of control, affecting the edges of forests and orchards. It is unclear whether these fires threaten the health and safety of chimpanzees or how severe the impact might be.
+|Slash-and-burn agriculture (Hockings & Sousa 2013). Fires set at the end of the dry season to clear land for shifting agriculture can sometimes become out of control, affecting the edges of forests and orchards. It is unclear whether these fires threaten the health and safety of chimpanzees or how severe the impact might be (Bersacola & Hockings pers. obs. 2024).
−|
+|2013-Ongoing (2024)
|-
|-
−|8 Invasive & other problematic species, genes & diseases
+|4 Transportation & service corridors
−|8.4 Pathogens
+|4.1 Roads & railroads
−|Present (unknown severity)
|Present (unknown severity)
−|Small scale charcoal mining is present in the northern areas of the park. It is unclear to what extent this impacts chimpanzees.
+|Road renovations since 2018 across the park have increased the number and speed of vehicles, with inadequate speed-limiting measures in place to prevent wildlife road mortalities (Bersacola & Hockings pers. obs. 2024).
−|
+|2018-Ongoing (2024)
|-
|-
|4 Transportation & service corridors
|4 Transportation & service corridors
|4.2 Utility & service lines
|4.2 Utility & service lines
|Present (unknown severity)
|Present (unknown severity)
−|A new power line is currently (2024) being established along the roads across the park. It is unclear to what extent the widening of roads and loss of trees will directly impact chimpanzees, and attract people to migrate into Cantanhez.
+|A new power line is currently (2024) being established along the roads across the park. It is unclear to what extent the widening of roads and loss of trees will directly impact chimpanzees, and attract people to migrate into Cantanhez (Bersacola & Hockings pers. obs. 2024).
−|
+|Ongoing (2024)
|-
|-
|11 Climate change & severe weather
|11 Climate change & severe weather
−|
|
−|Present (unknown severity)
|Present (unknown severity)
−|Logging is prohibited within protected forests, and subject to legal permits within buffer zones. No commercial logging is allowed within the National Park. However, illegal logging is present in some parts of the park, particularly of African fan palm (Borassus aethiopum) which can be sold commercially for construction.
+|Dry seasons are becoming longer as the rainy season is starting several weeks later. Residents report an increasing lack of freshwater during the second half of the dry season (beginning in March), with natural water sources drying out more quickly or previously permanent sources now drying out. It is unclear to what extent this impacts chimpanzees and the implications for human-chimpanzee coexistence (Bersacola & Hockings pers. ob. 2024).
−|
+|Ongoing (2024)
−|}
|}
Line 350:
Line 294:
= Conservation activities =
= Conservation activities =
−The Instituto da Biodiversidade e das Áreas Protegidas (IBAP, Agency of Guinea-Bissau government responsible for national parks) implements terrestrial and maritime monitoring missions, so-called ‘missões de fiscalização’. The maritime mission, for example, enables detection of illegal fishing. In addition, IBAP implements law enforcement, and supports local livelihoods by building capacity for using marine resources sustainably, such as oyster farming. An EU funded projects supports farmers in adapting more efficient farming practices.
+The Instituto da Biodiversidade e das Áreas Protegidas (IBAP, Agency of Guinea-Bissau government responsible for national parks) implements terrestrial and maritime monitoring missions, so-called ‘missões de fiscalização’. The maritime mission, for example, enables detection of illegal fishing. In addition, IBAP implements law enforcement, and supports local livelihoods by building capacity for using marine resources sustainably, such as oyster farming. An EU funded projects supports farmers in adapting more efficient farming practices. Cantanhez is being developed as a destination for tourists (http://www.ecocantanhez.org/), but the number of visiting tourists is low. It has been reported that local guides were trained and places that could be visited have been identified (Sousa et al. 2014). While current levels of tourism are low, there seems to be strong support from the community to develop it further in the future (Sousa et al. 2014).
'''Table 4. Conservation activities reported for Cantanhez National Park'''
'''Table 4. Conservation activities reported for Cantanhez National Park'''
Line 364:
Line 308:
|Support efficient farming practices (Hockings pers. obs.)
|Support efficient farming practices (Hockings pers. obs.)
|
|
−|Unknown (2019)
+|Ongoing (2019)
+|-
+|1 Development impact mitigation
+|1.13 Avoid/minimize logging of important food tree species for primates
+|Not formally implemented, but when clearing agricultural fields, local farmers in Cantanhez tend to avoid cutting large trees and palms that are important food sources for chimpanzees and are also used by people for food, medicine, shade, and spiritual reasons. Species protected by farmers include Parinari excelsa, Ceiba pentandra, and Elaeis guineensis (Hockings et al. 2020).
+|
+|1990-Ongoing (2024)
|-
|-
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
|2.3 Conduct regular anti-poaching patrols
|2.3 Conduct regular anti-poaching patrols
|IBAP (responsible park authority) employs local communities to conduct patrols (IBAP 2018). Eight guards are employed to patrol the park (Quecuta pers. comm. 2023).
|IBAP (responsible park authority) employs local communities to conduct patrols (IBAP 2018). Eight guards are employed to patrol the park (Quecuta pers. comm. 2023).
−|
+|IBAP
|2013-Ongoing (2023)
|2013-Ongoing (2023)
−|-
|-
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
|2.1 Implement road blocks to inspect cars for illegal ape bushmeat
|2.1 Implement road blocks to inspect cars for illegal ape bushmeat
−|Random road blocks to check for illegal bushmeat, including primate bushmeat, are sometimes carried out outside the park on the main road to Bissau.
+|Random road blocks to check for illegal bushmeat, including primate bushmeat, are sometimes carried out outside the park on the main road to Bissau (Bersacola & Hockings pers. obs. 2024).
|Direção Geral das Florestas e Fauna do Ministério de Agricultura, Floresta e Desenvolvimento Rural
|Direção Geral das Florestas e Fauna do Ministério de Agricultura, Floresta e Desenvolvimento Rural
−|2020 – Ongoing (2024)
+|2020-Ongoing (2024)
|-
|-
|3 Species health
|3 Species health
|3.1 Wear face-masks to avoid transmission of viral and bacterial diseases to primates
|3.1 Wear face-masks to avoid transmission of viral and bacterial diseases to primates
−|A research health protocol with stricter rules was implemented during the COVID-19 pandemic when research resumed in May 2020. The rules included regular disinfection of hands, boots, and equipment; the use of face masks and gloves when deploying and handling camera traps in the forest; and the use of face masks during survey encounters with (unhabituated) primates. Though the protocol is no longer enforced, parts of it, such as frequent hand washing, defecating in holes, and avoiding work when feeling unwell, remain as recommendations.
+|A research health protocol with stricter rules was implemented during the COVID-19 pandemic when research resumed in May 2020. The rules included regular disinfection of hands, boots, and equipment; the use of face masks and gloves when deploying and handling camera traps in the forest; and the use of face masks during survey encounters with (unhabituated) primates. Though the protocol is no longer enforced, parts of it, such as frequent hand washing, defecating in holes, and avoiding work when feeling unwell, remain as recommendations (Bersacola & Hockings pers. obs. 2024).
−|CCP; IBAP
+|CCP, IBAP
−|2020 – 2021
+|2020-2021
|-
|-
|3 Species health
|3 Species health
|3.2 Keep safety distance to habituated apes
|3.2 Keep safety distance to habituated apes
−|Tourism guides in Cantanhez have been trained by the Cantanhez Chimpanzee Project in best practice guidelines (https://www.iucngreatapes.org/protect-great-apes-from-disease). Although the chimpanzees are unhabituated and usually move away in the presence of people during tourism encounters, a minimum distance of 10 meters is recommended. Guides also avoid allowing people to stand directly beneath chimpanzee nests during tourist visits. Guides report a lack of willingness by tourists to engage in disease prevention methods since the end of strict COVID-19 restrictions.
+|Tourism guides in Cantanhez have been trained by the Cantanhez Chimpanzee Project in best practice guidelines (https://www.iucngreatapes.org/pr otect-great-apes-from-disease). Although the chimpanzees are unhabituated and usually move away in the presence of people during tourism encounters, a minimum distance of 10 meters is recommended. Guides also avoid allowing people to stand directly beneath chimpanzee nests during tourist visits. Guides report a lack of willingness by tourists to engage in disease prevention methods since the end of strict COVID-19 restrictions (Bersacola & Hockings pers. obs. 2024).
−|IBAP; CCP
+|CCP, IBAP
−|2021 – Ongoing (2024)
+|2021-Ongoing (2024)
|-
|-
|3 Species health
|3 Species health
|3.7 Regularly disinfect clothes, boots etc.
|3.7 Regularly disinfect clothes, boots etc.
−|As per research health protocol and tourism best practice guidelines. No longer enforced as of 2024.
+|As per research health protocol and tourism best practice guidelines. No longer enforced as of 2024 (Bersacola & Hockings pers. obs. 2024).
−|IBAP; CCP
+|CCP, IBAP
−|2020 – 2022
+|2020-2022
|-
|-
|3 Species health
|3 Species health
|3.11 Implement continuous health monitoring (with permanent vet on site)
|3.11 Implement continuous health monitoring (with permanent vet on site)
−|There is no veterinarian on site. In 2017, the Cantanhez Chimpanzee Project, in collaboration with the Robert Koch Institute and IBAP, began efforts to identify the cause of disease-like signs in chimpanzees that had been detected through camera trap footage by CCP members since 2015. Molecular confirmation of leprosy in chimpanzees was obtained in 2018 through faecal sampling (Hockings et al., 2021). In 2020, a biodiversity monitoring programme was implemented by the University of Exeter/Cantanhez Chimpanzee Project and IBAP, using camera traps to identify physical signs of disease in wildlife (Bersacola et al., 2021b).
+|There is no veterinarian on site. In 2017, the Cantanhez Chimpanzee Project, in collaboration with the Robert Koch Institute and IBAP, began efforts to identify the cause of disease-like signs in chimpanzees that had been detected through camera trap footage by CCP members since 2015. Molecular confirmation of leprosy in chimpanzees was obtained in 2018 through faecal sampling (Hockings et al., 2021). In 2020, a biodiversity monitoring programme was implemented by the University of Exeter/Cantanhez Chimpanzee Project and IBAP, using camera traps to identify physical signs of disease in wildlife (Bersacola et al., 2021b). Intensive faecal sampling and high-resolution camera trap monitoring of three chimpanzee communities were carried out by the Cantanhez Chimpanzee Project in 2021–2022 to determine the prevalence of leprosy in chimpanzees (Marina Ramon, unpubl. data). As of 2024, health monitoring by the Cantanhez Chimpanzee Project and IBAP continues using camera traps (Bersacola & Hockings pers. obs. 2024).
−|CCP, IBAP
−|2020-Ongoing (2024)
−Intensive faecal sampling and high-resolution camera trap monitoring of three chimpanzee communities were carried out by the Cantanhez Chimpanzee Project in 2021–2022 to determine the prevalence of leprosy in chimpanzees (Marina Ramon, unpubl. data). As of 2024, health monitoring by the Cantanhez Chimpanzee Project and IBAP continues using camera traps.
−|CCP; IBAP
−|2020 – Ongoing (2024)
|-
|-
|3 Species health
|3 Species health
|3.12 Detect & report dead apes and clinically determine their cause of death to avoid disease transmission
|3.12 Detect & report dead apes and clinically determine their cause of death to avoid disease transmission
−|A carcass swabbing protocol, including health and safety rules, has been operational since 2021 by the Cantanhez Chimpanzee Project (CCP) and IBAP, in collaboration with the Helmholtz Institute for One Health. Due to the lack of veterinarians in Cantanhez, primate carcasses are only swabbed and then buried on site. Residents are informed of the potential dangers posed by wildlife carcasses – particularly those of chimpanzees and other non-human primates – to human health, and are advised to avoid touching or approaching carcasses and to report any sightings to IBAP or CCP immediately.
+|A carcass swabbing protocol, including health and safety rules, has been operational since 2021 by the Cantanhez Chimpanzee Project (CCP) and IBAP, in collaboration with the Helmholtz Institute for One Health. Due to the lack of veterinarians in Cantanhez, primate carcasses are only swabbed and then buried on site. Residents are informed of the potential dangers posed by wildlife carcasses – particularly those of chimpanzees and other non-human primates – to human health, and are advised to avoid touching or approaching carcasses and to report any sightings to IBAP or CCP immediately (Bersacola & Hockings pers. obs. 2024).
−|IBAP; CCP; Helmholtz Institute for One Health
+|IBAP, CCP, Helmholtz Institute for One Health
−|2021 – Ongoing (2024)
+|2021-Ongoing (2024)
|-
|-
|4 Education & awareness
|4 Education & awareness
Line 446:
Line 362:
|One Health knowledge sharing sessions have been implemented in 2021 by CCP and ONG NADEL with local communities (142 local women and men) across 11 villages in central Cantanhez (CCP unpubl. data). In 2023, IBAP and CCP implemented an education activity programme with over 500 children (7-14 yrs) at villages across the whole of Cantanhez (A Sanhá, in prep).
|One Health knowledge sharing sessions have been implemented in 2021 by CCP and ONG NADEL with local communities (142 local women and men) across 11 villages in central Cantanhez (CCP unpubl. data). In 2023, IBAP and CCP implemented an education activity programme with over 500 children (7-14 yrs) at villages across the whole of Cantanhez (A Sanhá, in prep).
|NADEL, IBAP, CCP
|NADEL, IBAP, CCP
−|2021 – 2023
+|2021-2023
|-
|-
|4 Education & awareness
|4 Education & awareness
|4.2 Involve local community in ape research and conservation management
|4.2 Involve local community in ape research and conservation management
−|Cantanhez chiefs (Régulos), some local group associations, and around 30 representatives of villages associated with protected forest blocks are part of the conservation management council, which is formally involved in the management of the park (IBAP 2018a; 2018b).
+|Cantanhez chiefs (Régulos), some local group associations, and around 30 representatives of villages associated with protected forest blocks are part of the conservation management council, which is formally involved in the management of the park (IBAP 2018a, 2018b).
|IBAP
|IBAP
−|2016 – Ongoing (2024)
+|2016-Ongoing (2024)
|-
|-
|4 Education & awareness
|4 Education & awareness
|4.3 Install billboards to raise ape conservation awareness
|4.3 Install billboards to raise ape conservation awareness
|Protect Great Apes from Disease posters have been disseminated across Cantanhez, including at the local hospital in Iemberem.
|Protect Great Apes from Disease posters have been disseminated across Cantanhez, including at the local hospital in Iemberem.
−|IBAP; CCP
+|CCP, IBAP
−|2021
+|2021.0
|-
|-
|4 Education & awareness
|4 Education & awareness
Line 464:
Line 380:
|See 4.1 (One Health knowledge sharing and children education sessions)
|See 4.1 (One Health knowledge sharing and children education sessions)
|NADEL, IBAP, CCP
|NADEL, IBAP, CCP
−|2021 – 2023
+|2021-2023
|-
|-
+|5 Protection & restoration
+|5.2 Legally protect ape habitat
+|Designated as national park since 2007 (UNEP-WCMC & IUCN 2019).
|
|
+|2007-Ongoing (2023)
+|-
+|7 Economic & other incentives
+|7.1 Provide monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g., REDD, alternative income, employment)
+|Local people are employed to conduct patrols (IBAP 2018).
|
|
+|Ongoing (2018)
+|-
+|8 Permanent presence
+|8.2 Run tourist projects and ensure permanent human presence at site
+|Low levels of tourism (Sousa et al. 2014). Ecotourism has existed in the area since 1996 (Quecuta pers. Comm. 2023).
|
|
−|
+|1996-Ongoing (2023)
−|}
|}
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= Challenges =
= Challenges =
+The park has faced several long-standing challenges, including a lack of continuous funding, insufficient equipment, and limited transportation, which have complicated effective management since 2011. While funding remains largely dependent on short-term project cycles, transportation is expected to improve in 2025 with new vehicles and motorbikes provided by the GCCA+ project. Infrastructure has also been a concern, but progress has been made with the partial completion of a new park headquarters in 2024, and additional guard outposts are planned for 2025. Additionally, biomonitoring efforts have improved since 2016, with significant capacity-building initiatives taking place since 2020.
+Other ongoing challenges include eroding traditional conservation taboos due to expanding cashew farming, limited community engagement, and weak law enforcement. While forest guards conduct patrols, further training and strategy development are scheduled for 2025 through GCCA+ and the Darwin Initiative. Broader issues such as political and economic instability continue to impact conservation efforts, as highlighted by the World Bank. Addressing these challenges will require sustained funding, stronger community involvement, and enhanced enforcement measures to ensure long-term conservation success (Bersacola & Hockings pers. comm. 2024).
'''Table 5. Challenges reported for Cantanhez National Park'''
'''Table 5. Challenges reported for Cantanhez National Park'''
Line 485:
Line 415:
!Source
!Source
!Year(s)
!Year(s)
−|-
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.4 Lack of continuous/long-term funding
|2.4 Lack of continuous/long-term funding
−|Park management largely dependent on relatively short-term project cycles (3-5 years).
+|Bersacola & Hockings pers. obs. 2024
−|2011 – Ongoing (2024)
+|2011-Ongoing (2024)
|-
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.5 Lack of equipment/transportation
|2.5 Lack of equipment/transportation
−|Lack of transportation will be improved in 2025 through a GCCA+ new project, which include additional car and motorbikes (Queba Quecuta pers. comment)
+|Quecuta pers. obs. 2023
−|2011 – Ongoing (2024)
+|2011-Ongoing (2024)
|-
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.6 Lack of biomonitoring/survey data
|2.6 Lack of biomonitoring/survey data
−|Landscape-scale scale surveys and biomonitoring efforts began in 2016 (Bersacola et al. 2022; Bersacola et al 2021b; IBAP unpubl. data; Houldcroft et al in review; Bersacola and Hockings 2023; Bersacola et al. in prep).
+|Bersacola et al. 2022; Bersacola et al 2021b; IBAP unpubl. data; Houldcroft et al in review; Bersacola and Hockings 2023; Bersacola et al. in prep
−|2011 – 2017
+|2011-2017
|-
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.7 Lack of infrastructure
|2.7 Lack of infrastructure
−|The construction of a new park headquarter was partially completed in 2024. Park guard outpost buildings are planned to be constructed in 2025.
+|Bersacola & Hockings pers. obs. 2024
−|2011 – 2025
+|2011-2025
|-
|-
|3 Engaged community
|3 Engaged community
|3.4 Eroding taboos in favor of conservation
|3.4 Eroding taboos in favor of conservation
−|Conservation/local/traditional land use practices to protect forests being eroded via demand for land for cashew farming (Chloe Chesney, unpubl. data; Bersacola & Hockings 2023))
+|Chloe Chesney, unpubl. data; Bersacola & Hockings 2023
−|2011 – Ongoing (2024)
+|2011-Ongoing (2024)
|-
|-
|4 Institutional support
|4 Institutional support
|4.1 Lack of law enforcement
|4.1 Lack of law enforcement
−|Guards are assigned to patrol forest blocks. Additional capability training and strategy to be developed in 2025 via GCCA+ and Darwin Initiative funded projects (https://ibapgbissau.org/projetos-ibap/; https://www.darwininitiative.org.uk/project/DAR31009)
+|Bersacola & Hockings pers. obs. 2024
−|2011 –
+|2011-Ongoing (2024)
|-
|-
|6 Safety and stability
|6 Safety and stability
|6.1 Political/economic instabilty
|6.1 Political/economic instabilty
−|WorldBank (2024)
+|WorldBank 2024
−|2011 – Ongoing (2024)
+|2011-Ongoing (2024)
|-
|-
|3 Engaged community
|3 Engaged community
|3.1 General lack of community engagement or support
|3.1 General lack of community engagement or support
−|Lack of conservation support in some localities (Queba Quecuta pers. comment)
+|Quecuta pers. obs. 2023
−|2018 – Ongoing (2024)
+|2018-Ongoing (2024)
|-
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.1 Lack of capacity/training
|2.1 Lack of capacity/training
−|Biomonitoring capacity via training and survey implementations has significantly improved since 2020 (IBAP, unpublished reports; Hockings and Bersacola 2022)).
+|IBAP, unpublished reports; Hockings and Bersacola 2022
−|2011 – 2020
+|2011-2020
|}
|}
Line 548:
Line 473:
!Source
!Source
!Year(s)
!Year(s)
−|-
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.5 Sufficient capacity/expertise to advise, design, or implement actions
|2.5 Sufficient capacity/expertise to advise, design, or implement actions
|Bersacola et al 2021b
|Bersacola et al 2021b
−|2021 – Ongoing (2024)
+|2021-Ongoing (2024)
|-
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.6 External partnerships that add expertise or resources
|2.6 External partnerships that add expertise or resources
|Bersacola et al 2021b
|Bersacola et al 2021b
−|2019 – Ongoing (2024)
+|2019-Ongoing (2024)
|-
|-
|3 Engaged community
|3 Engaged community
|3.1 Strong local environmental knowledge
|3.1 Strong local environmental knowledge
−|Sousa et al 2014; 2017; 2018; C Chesney unpubl. data
+|Sousa et al. 2014, 2017, 2018;Chesney unpubl. data
−|2000 – Ongoing (2024)
+|2000-Ongoing (2024)
|-
|-
|3 Engaged community
|3 Engaged community
|3.5 Positive past experience/associations with conservation (e.g. postivie image of conservation)
|3.5 Positive past experience/associations with conservation (e.g. postivie image of conservation)
−|C Chesney unpubl. data
+|Chesney unpubl. data
−|2023 – Ongoing (2024)
+|2023-Ongoing (2024)
|-
|-
|3 Engaged community
|3 Engaged community
|3.6 Local community engagement and support
|3.6 Local community engagement and support
−|IBAP 2018a; 2018b; Bersacola et al 2021b; DAR31009
+|IBAP 2018a, 2018b; Bersacola et al. 2021b, DAR31009
−|2016 – Ongoing (2024)
+|2016-Ongoing (2024)
|-
|-
|3 Engaged community
|3 Engaged community
|3.7 Site has high cultural/religious value
|3.7 Site has high cultural/religious value
−|IBAP 2018a; 2018b
+|IBAP 2018a, 2018b
−|2011 – Ongoing (2024)
+|2011-Ongoing (2024)
|-
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.4 Adequate data to inform and evaluate conservation actions
|2.4 Adequate data to inform and evaluate conservation actions
−|Bersacola and Hockings 2023
+|Bersacola & Hockings 2023
−|2022 – Ongoing (2024)
+|2022-Ongoing (2024)
|}
|}
Line 618:
Line 513:
= Research activities =
= Research activities =
−Cantanhez National Park (Cantanhez NP) was created in 2011 (Decree 14/2011) and is under the
+management of the national Institute for Biodiversity and Protected Areas (IBAP). Currently, IBAP is under
+the supervision of the Minister responsible for the Environment, and has administrative, financial and
+patrimonial autonomy, and therefore has the capacity to develop policies and regulations relating to the
+conservation of biodiversity and PAs.
+The main management objectives of IBAP in Cantanhez NP are the "preservation, conservation and
+defence of patches of sub-humid forest with great biological diversity. Cantanhez NP is considered to be the
+last patch of sub-humid forest in the country with the greatest floral and faunal diversity. Among other
+objectives are the safeguarding of endangered species of rare animals and plants", including western
+chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus), through "the promotion of ecotourism and the valorisation of
+economic activities as a way of improving the living conditions of the resident populations." (IBAP 2018;
+https://ibapgbissau.org/pnc-ap/).
+Chimpanzee research in Cantanhez NP began before the establishment of the park and is ongoing.
+Chimpanzees in Cantanhez NP have not been habituated for research to reduce the potential negative
+impacts associated with reducing fear of humans and the high overlap in space and resource use with the
+local human population across the entire park. Chimpanzee research therefore relies on indirect methods of
+data collection. Studies have been conducted on chimpanzee feeding ecology (Bessa et al 2015; Hockings
+et al 2020); habitat use, densities and distribution (Sousa et al 2011; Torres et al 2010; Bersacola et al
+2021a; 2021b; 2022); parasitology (Sá et al 2013), behaviour and cultural repertoires (Bain et al., 2021;
+Bessa et al., 2022, 2021; Bersacola et al, in review), interactions with humans (Hockings and Sousa 2012;
+2013; Bersacola et al 2019; Sousa et al 2014; 2017; 2018), disease and genetics (Hockings et al 2021;
+Marina Ramon, in prep).
+The Cantanhez Chimpanzee Project (CCP, co-directed by Dr K Hockings and Dr E Bersacola) is currently
+working in collaboration with IBAP to conduct long-term research on the behaviour, ecology and
+conservation of chimpanzees in Cantanhez NP. In particular, we carry out research on human-chimpanzee
+interactions at the landscape scale, using both biological and social sciences approaches. The primary aim
+of CCP is to carry out inter-disciplinary research to inform the development of evidence-based conservation
+and management strategies to promote human-chimpanzee coexistence in Cantanhez Np, and to inform
+conservation efforts in other protected areas in Guinea-Bissau (Bersacola and Hockings 2023). Additionally,
+CCP works in collaboration with IBAP, NGOs (including Nadel, Palmeirinha) and local stakeholders to
+promote multi-stakeholder involvement and public support for chimpanzee conservation through information
+sharing and knowledge exchange in informal and formal meetings with adult residents and through
+children's education.
+In 2020, a biodiversity and health monitoring programme was established in Cantanhez NP through a
+Darwin Initiative funded project (DAR26018) with IBAP and the Cantanhez Chimpanzee Project
+(CCP)/University of Exeter as the implementation partner institutions (Bersacola et al. 2021b). We
+conducted standardised surveys, including line transects and camera traps, across the park for three
+consecutive years (Hockings and Bersacola 2022; Bersacola et al. 2021b). Besides continuing landscapescale camera trap-based biomonitoring, upcoming research activities supported by the Darwin Initiative
+(project DAR31009), implemented by IBAP, ONG Palmeirinha, and the University of Exeter through CCP,
+will include using camera traps, bioacoustics, interviews, participatory mapping, and informal consultations
+with residents to: (1) identify the ecological, social, and environmental drivers of human-chimpanzee
+interactions at the chimpanzee-community level across the park; (2) measure the impacts of wildlife,
+including chimpanzees, on human wellbeing and livelihoods; and (3) co-develop initiatives with local
+communities to support livelihood diversification and human wellbeing (DAR31009
+https://www.biodiversitychallengefunds.org.uk/project/DAR31009).
= Documented behaviours =
= Documented behaviours =
−'''Table 7. Behaviours documented for Cantanhez National Park'''
'''Table 7. Behaviours documented for Cantanhez National Park'''
Line 629:
Line 568:
!Behavior
!Behavior
!Source
!Source
−|-
|-
|Honey dipping
|Honey dipping
−|Bessa et al (2021; 2022)
+|Bessa et al. 2021, 2022
|-
|-
|Fluid dipping
|Fluid dipping
−|Bessa et al (2022)
+|Bessa et al. 2022
|-
|-
|Leaf-sponge
|Leaf-sponge
−|Bessa et al (2022)
+|Bessa et al. 2022
|-
|-
|Honey-feed, no tools
|Honey-feed, no tools
−|Bessa et al (2022)
+|Bessa et al. 2022
|-
|-
|Mangrove-eat
|Mangrove-eat
−|Bessa et al (2022)
+|Bessa et al. 2022
|-
|-
|Saltwater-drink
|Saltwater-drink
−|Bessa et al (2022)
+|Bessa et al. 2022
|-
|-
|Leaf-clipping (fingers and mouth)
|Leaf-clipping (fingers and mouth)
−|Bessa et al (2022)
+|Bessa et al. 2022
|-
|-
|Leaf dragging, leaf pulling
|Leaf dragging, leaf pulling
−|Bessa et al (2022)
+|Bessa et al. 2022
|-
|-
|Rain-dance
|Rain-dance
−|Bessa et al (2022)
+|Bessa et al. 2022
|-
|-
|Plant food sharing
|Plant food sharing
−|Bessa et al (2022); Bowland et al (in prep)
+|Bessa et al. 2022, Bowland et al. (in prep)
|-
|-
|Raspberry vocalisation
|Raspberry vocalisation
−|Bessa et al (2022)
+|Bessa et al. 2022
|-
|-
|Infant corpse carrying
|Infant corpse carrying
Line 670:
Line 606:
|-
|-
|Nesting on oil palms
|Nesting on oil palms
−|Sousa et al (2011)
+|Sousa et al. 2011
|-
|-
|Crop feeding
|Crop feeding
−|Bessa et al (2015); Hockings et al (2020)
+|Bessa et al. 2015, Hockings et al. 2020
|-
|-
|Meat consumption
|Meat consumption
Line 811:
Line 747:
= References =
= References =
−Bersacola, E., 2019. Zooming in on human-wildlife coexistence: primate community responses in a shared agroforest landscape in Guinea-Bissau (PhD). Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, UK. <br>
−Bersacola, E., Hill, C.M., Hockings, K.J., 2021a. Chimpanzees balance resources and risk in an anthropogenic landscape of fear. Scientific Reports 11, 4569. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-83852-3 <br>
−Bersacola, E., Hill, C.M., Nijman, V., Hockings, K.J., 2022. Examining primate community occurrence patterns in agroforest landscapes using arboreal and terrestrial camera traps. Landsc Ecol 37, 3103–3121. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-022-01524-7 <br>
−Bersacola, E., Hockings, K.J., 2023. Action plan for the conservation of medium- and large-sized terrestrial mammals in Cantanhez National Park, Guinea-Bissau (2023-2033). IBAP, Bissau, Guinea-Bissau. <br>
−Bersacola, E., Houldcroft, A., Clarke, L., Jaló, M., Sanhá, A., Quecuta, Q., Benante, J.E., Regalla de Barros, A., De Rivera Ortega, O.R., Hockings, K.J., in prep. Improving great ape monitoring across the heterogeneous continuum: A spatially explicit joint model using standard surveys. <br>
−Bersacola, E., McLennan, M.R., Bessa, J., Camara, H., Jaló, M., Kiiza, V., Mamy, G., Mpanga, N., Oelze, V.M., Ramon, M., Sanhá, A., van Holstein, L., Fitzgerald, M., Stewart, F.A., Koops, K., Hockings, K.J., in review. Camera traps document infant corpse carrying behaviour in multiple unhabituated chimpanzee populations. Ecology and Evolution. <br>
−Bersacola, E., Parathian, H., Frazão-Moreira, A., Jaló, M., Sanhá, A., Regalla, A., Saíd, A.R., Quecuta, Q., Camará, S.T., Quade, S.M.F.F., Jaquite, S.M., Lopes, A.G., Patrono, L.V., Ramon, M., Bessa, J., Godley, B.J., Bonneaud, C., Leendertz, F.H., Hockings, K.J., 2021b. Developing an Evidence-Based Coexistence Strategy to Promote Human and Wildlife Health in a Biodiverse Agroforest Landscape. Front. Conserv. Sci. 2, 735367. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcosc.2021.735367 <br>
−Bessa, J., Biro, D., Hockings, K., 2022. Inter-community behavioural variation confirmed through indirect methods in four neighbouring chimpanzee communities in Cantanhez NP, Guinea-Bissau. Royal Society Open Science 9, 211518. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.211518 <br>
−Bessa, J., Hockings, K., Biro, D., 2021. First evidence of chimpanzee extractive tool use in Cantanhez, Guinea-Bissau: Cross-community variation in honey dipping. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution 9, 180. https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2021.625303 <br>
−Bessa, J., Sousa, C., Hockings, K.J., 2015. Feeding ecology of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) inhabiting a forest-mangrove-savanna-agricultural matrix at Caiquene-Cadique, Cantanhez National Park, Guinea-Bissau. American Journal of Primatology 77, 651–665. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.22388 <br>
−Brugiere, D., Badjinca, I., Silva, C., Serra, A., 2009. Distribution of chimpanzees and interactions with humans in Guinea-Bissau and Western Guinea, West Africa. Folia Primatologica 80, 353–358. <br>
−Casanova, C., Sousa, C., 2006. Distribuição das comunidades de chimpanzés (Pan troglodytes verus) na região costeira da República da Guiné-Bissau e a sua relação com as comunidades humanas locais. Mission Report (March 2006). Lisboa, Portugal. <br>
−Catarino, L., 2004. Fitogeografia da Guiné-Bissau. PhD thesis, Instituto Superior de Agronomia, Lisboa. <br>
−Costa, S., Casanova, C., Lee, P., 2017. What Does Conservation Mean for Women? The Case of the Cantanhez Forest National Park. Conservation and Society 15, 168–178. https://doi.org/10.4103/cs.cs <br>
−Gippoliti, S., Dell’Omo, G., 1996. Primates of the Cantanhez Forest and the Cacine Basin, Guinea-Bissau. Oryx 30, 74–80. <br>
−Gippoliti, S., Dell’Omo, G., 2003. Primates of Guinea-Bissau, West Africa: Distribution and conservation status. Primate Conservation 19, 73–77. <br>
−Gippoliti, S., D. Embalo and C. Sousa. 2003. Chimpanzee conservation status in Guinea-Bissau. In: West African Chimpanzees. Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan, R. Kormos, C. Boesch, M. I. Bakarr and T. M. Butynski. (eds.), pp.55–61. IUCN/SSC Primate Special- ist Group, Gland, Switzerland, and Cambridge, UK <br>
−Hockings KJ & Sousa C. 2012. Differential utilization of cashew—a low-conflict crop—bysympatric humans and chimpanzees.Oryx46:375–381DOI 10.1017/S003060531100130X <br>
−Hockings KJ & Sousa C. 2013. Human-Chimpanzee Sympatry and Interactions in Cantanhez Forest National Park, Guinea-Bissau: Current Research and Future Directions. Primate Conservation, 26(1), 57–65. https://doi.org/10.1896/052.026.0104 <br>
−Hockings, K.J., Bersacola, E., 2022. Darwin Initiative Main Project 26-018: Final Report. <br>
−Hockings, K.J., Mubemba, B., Avanzi, C., Pleh, K., Düx, A., Bersacola, E., Bessa, J., Ramon, M., Metzger, S., Patrono, L.V., Jaffe, J.E., Benjak, A., Bonneaud, C., Busso, P., Couacy-Hymann, E., Gado, M., Gagneux, S., Johnson, R.C., Kodio, M., Lynton-Jenkins, J., Morozova, I., Mätz-Rensing, K., Regalla, A., Saíd, A.R., Schuenemann, V.J., Sow, S.O., Spencer, J.S., Ulrich, M., Zoubi, H., Cole, S.T., Wittig, R.M., Calvignac-Spencer, S., Leendertz, F.H., 2021. Leprosy in wild chimpanzees. Nature 598, 652–656. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-03968-4 <br>
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−IBAP, 2018b. Parque Nacional de Cantanhez: regulamento interno. Instituto da Biodiversidade e das Áreas Protegidas, Bissau, Guinea-Bissau. <br>
−IUCN & Chimbo. 2016. The conservation of the Savannah Chimpanzees of Guinea Bissau and Senegal. (February), 1–19. Retrieved from http://chimbo.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/The-conservation-of-the-Savannah-Chimpanzees-of-Guinea-Bissau-and-Senegal-Report-Workshop-Beli-14-16.2.2016.pdf <br>
−Kormos, R., C. Boesch, M. I. Bakarr and T. M. Butynski. 2003. West African Chimpanzees. Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan. IUCN/SSC Primate Specialist Group. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland, and Cambridge, UK <br>
−Minhos et al. 2016. Genetic consequences of human forest exploitation in two colobus monkeys in Guinea Bissau. Biological Conservation. 194:194-208.<br>
−Parathian, H.E., McLennan, M.R., Hill, C.M., Frazão-Moreira, A., Hockings, K.J., 2018. Breaking through disciplinary barriers: human–wildlife interactions and multispecies ethnography. Int J Primatol 39, 749–775. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10764-018-0027-9 <br>
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−Sousa, J., Vicente, L., Gippoliti, S., Casanova, C., Sousa, C., 2014. Local knowledge and perceptions of chimpanzees in Cantanhez National Park, Guinea-Bissau. American Journal of Primatology 76, 122–134. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.22215 <br>
−Sousa JV. 2007. Densidade de Pan troglodytes verus e Veículos de Sensibilização Ambiental: Quatro Florestas de Cantanhez, República da Guiné-Bissau. Lisboa: Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade de Lisboa. 130 p <br>
−Sousa, J., Barata, A. V., Sousa, C., Casanova, C. C. N., & Vicente, L. 2011. Chimpanzee oil-palm use in southern Cantanhez Forest National Park, Guinea-Bissau. American Journal of Primatology, 73(5), 485–497. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.20926 <br>
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−Sousa JV. 2007. Densidade de Pan troglodytes verus e Veículos de Sensibilização Ambiental: Quatro Florestas de Cantanhez, República da Guiné-Bissau. Lisboa: Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade de Lisboa. 130 p
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−Hockings, K.J., Mubemba, B., Avanzi, C., Pleh, K., Düx, A., Bersacola, E., Bessa, J., Ramon, M., Metzger, S., Patrono, L.V., Jaffe, J.E., Benjak, A., Bonneaud, C., Busso, P., Couacy-Hymann, E., Gado, M., Gagneux, S., Johnson, R.C., Kodio, M., Lynton-Jenkins, J., Morozova, I., Mätz-Rensing, K., Regalla, A., Said, A.R., Schuenemann, V.J., Sow, S.O., Spencer, J.S., Ulrich, M., Zoubi, H., Cole, S.T., Wittig, R.M., Calvignac-Spencer, S., Leendertz, F.H., 2021. Leprosy in wild chimpanzees. Nature 598, 652–656. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-03968-4
−WorldBank, 2024. Guinea-Bissau Economic Update: Retiring the Fiscal Risk, Spring 2024. WorldBank.
−'''Page created by: '''Elena Bersacola (e.bersacola@exeter.ac.uk); Kimberley Hockings (k.hockings@exeter.ac.uk)''' Date:''' 2024-08-09
+'''Page created by: '''Elena Bersacola, Kimberley Hockings''' Date:''' 2024-08-09