Latest revision as of 00:02, 21 November 2024

Summary

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Western chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) are present in Dindefelo.
The population size is unknown.
The chimpanzee population trend is unknown.
This site has a total size of 140 km².
Key threats to chimpanzees is habitat degradation.
Conservation interventions by the Jane Goodall Institute Spain in Senegal focus on promoting the development of the local human communities and sustainable utilisation of natural resources while reducing negative interactions between humans and chimpanzees in the Kedougou region, mainly in the Commune of Dindefelo, but also in other communes.
Dindefelo is a Community Nature Reserve managed by the local authorities. It was created in 2010 with the support of JGI Spain in Senegal to foster sustainable development of the local community while protecting flora and fauna.

Party of Dindefelo chimpanzees in a Baobab tree © Dindefelo team

Site characteristics

Dindefelo (officially called Réserve Naturelle Communautaire de Dindéfélo or Dindefelo Community Nature Reserve) is located in the Kedougou department in southeastern Senegal, along the border with Guinea. Since 2009, the Jane Goodall Institute Spain in Senegal (https://www.janegoodallsenegal.org/conservation-chimpanzee) has conducted research and conservation activities, and a chimpanzee biomonitoring program in the area. The Community Nature Reserve was created by the Rural Council of Dindefelo in 2010 with the support of the JGI Spain in Senegal (Pacheco et al. 2012). The reserve is managed by the Mayor of Dindefelo and representatives of the local communities, with the declared goal of fostering a sustainable use of natural resources and the protection of flora and fauna, particularly chimpanzees. The JGI Spain in Senegal has provided technical assistance to the reserve since its creation. In 2014, the JGI Spain established a permanent biological station (the Dindefelo Biological Station) to conduct research, and implement conservation and education activities. The habitat is a Sudano-Guinean savanna woodland mosaic composed of open (woodland, grassland, shrubland and bamboo) and closed (evergreen gallery forest and dense forest) vegetation types (Pacheco et al. 2012, Enthoven et al. 2017). There are also some agricultural areas and degraded gallery forests (Pacheco et al. 2012). The climate is extremely seasonal, with a dry season lasting seven months. There are six villages and hamlets within and eight surrounding the reserve, where different ethnic groups are present. The majority of people belong to the Peulh and Malinke and the remaining to the Bassari, Bedik, Djallounke and Coniagui. The highest waterfall in Senegal is located in the reserve, which attracts thousands of national and international tourists every year (Camon et al. 2020). Five non-human primate species are present in the reserve: western chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes verus), green monkey (Chlorocebus sabaeus), patas monkey (Erythrocebus patas), lesser bushbaby (Galago senegalensis) and Guinea baboon (Papio papio) (Ramon et al. 2017). In addition, there have been rare sightings of King colobus (Colobus polykomos: Dotras et al. 2022) and Campbell’s monkey (Cercopithecus campbelli: Mirghani et al. in press).

Table 1. Basic site information for Dindefelo

Area	140 km²
Coordinates	12.377328, -12.326048
Designation	Community Nature Reserve
Habitat types	Dry savanna, subtropical/tropical dry shrubland, subtropical/tropical dry forest, subtropical/tropical dry lowland grassland, arable land, permanent rivers; seasonal/intermittent/irregular rivers, streams, creeks; dry caves

IUCN habitat categories Site designations

Ape status

A survey of southeastern Senegal established the presence of chimpanzees in what is now the reserve (Pruetz et al. 2002). Since the onset of research and conservation activities implemented by the Jane Goodall Institute Spain in Senegal (https://www.janegoodallsenegal.org/research) chimpanzees are monitored regularly. As part of the Pan African Programme: The Cultured Chimpanzee (PanAf (http://panafrican.eva.mpg.de/)), a systematic survey was implemented and chimpanzee density has been estimated at 0.13 indiv/km² (Wessling et al. 2020). An estimate of the population size has not been published, but a minimum of 53 individual chimpanzees have been identified by direct observation and footage from camera traps since 2017 (JGI Spain in Senegal, unpublished data).

Table 2. Great ape population estimates in Dindefelo

Species	Year	Abundance estimate (95% CI)	Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI)	Encounter rate (nests/km)	Area	Method	Source	Comments	A.P.E.S. database ID
Pan troglodytes verus	2000			Present	Dindefelo	Index survey	Pruetz et al. 2002
Pan troglodytes verus	2017		0.13		Dindefelo	Line transects (Distance)	Wessling et al. 2020	Total survey effort: 73.8 km

Threats

The main threats to chimpanzees include the clearing of vegetation for agriculture, uncontrolled bushfires and pollution of water sources (Pacheco et al. 2012, Arias et al. 2017, Enthoven et al. 2017). Local people extract the following resources, which include several plant species used by the chimpanzees for food and for nesting: wood (e.g. Cordyla pinnata), charcoal (e.g. Piliostigma thonningii), food (e.g. Saba senegalensis fruit), and medicine (e.g. Pterocarpus erinaceus) (Enthoven et al. 2017, Ramon et al. 2017; Macina et al. 2022; Renelies-Hamilton et al. in press; JGI Spain in Senegal unpublished data). The people also collect dead branches to use as firewood. Due to lack of other options, watercourses are used for bathing and washing clothes and dishes. This causes the pollution of watercourses, as plastic littering and old clothes are thrown away (posing a risk of ingestion by wildlife: Pacheco et al. 2012, Arias et al. 2017) and soap along with human waste remain in the water. Overtapping of palm trees has also been reported (Pacheco et al. 2012). A further concern is the competition between chimpanzees and humans for water during the dry season (JGI Spain in Senegal, unpublished data). Small scale, artisanal gold mining was observed in 2015 in the buffer area of the reserve and in 2020 inside the reserve, but it is currently absent. No evidence of chimpanzee hunting has been found through all the years the JGI Spain in Senegal has been in the area.

Table 3. Threats to great apes in Dindefelo

Category	Specific threats	Threat level	Quantified severity	Description	Year of threat
1. Residential & commercial development	1.1 Housing & urban areas	High	Approx. 8,000 inhabitants in 770 villages (as of 2012); 7,085 inhabitants in 1,161 households (as of 2020).	Villages and hamlets (Pacheco et al. 2012). New houses are being built across the limit of the reserve in Dindefelo village.	2012-Ongoing (2020)
	1.3 Tourism & recreation areas	Medium		Localized area around visitor centre and pathways leading to the waterfall (Camon et al. 2020)	Ongoing (2019)
2. Agriculture & aquaculture	2.1 Annual & perennial non-timber crops	High		Agricultural activities (Pacheco et al. 2012)	Ongoing (2012)
	2.3 Livestock farming & ranching	High		Livestock grazing	Ongoing
3. Energy production & mining	3.2 Mining & quarrying	High		Prospection for artisanal gold mining signs encountered in 2015 and 2020, but not since 2021.	2015, 2020-2021
4. Transportation & service corridors	4.1 Roads & railroads	Low		New informal road created between Segou and Affia villages goes through critical chimpanzee habitat. In 2023, the improvement (widening and asphalting) of the Dindefelo-Kedougou road and the Segou-Lougue (Guinea) through Badiari road began.	Ongoing (2023)
	4.2 Utility & service lines	High		In 2021-2022, a high-tension power line was built by the Organisation pour la Mise en Valeur du Fleuve Gambie (OMVG) across the reserve, with deforestation along the line.	2021-2022
5. Biological resource use	5.1 Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals	Medium		Hunting of wildlife (Pacheco et al. 2012)	Ongoing (2012)
	5.2 Gathering terrestrial plants	Medium		Gathering fruits (Ramon et al. 2017) and plant products for medicine and to feed livestock (the latter during the dry season).	Ongoing (2017)
	5.3 Logging & wood harvesting	Medium		Cutting of trees for building and firewood (Pacheco et al. 2012, Arias et al. 2017)	2012-Ongoing (2017)
6. Human intrusions & disturbance	6.1 Recreational activities	High		Thousands of tourists visit the waterfall every year, with the possibility of converging with the chimpanzees (Camon et al. 2020). Human waste, leftovers and littering in the gallery forest of the waterfall are common sights. Large groups arrive without control. Regulations should be enforced. The situation will likely get worse after the new paved road from Kedougou to Dindefelo is completed, as well as the Segou-Lougue road.	Ongoing (2019)
7. Natural system modifications	7.1 Fire & fire suppression	High		Fire used to clear areas for agriculture (Pacheco et al. 2012)	Ongoing (2012)
7. Natural system modifications	7.2 Dams & water management/use	High		The OMVG Energy Project also includes the construction of a dam (Sambangalou) on the Gambia river, on the eastern border of the reserve, which will flood about 920ha of the reserve.	Ongoing (2023)
8. Invasive & other problematic species, genes, diseases	8.1 Invasive non-native/alien species/diseases	Medium		Dogs; Nature observation trekking in chimpanzee habitat pose safety and security risks (including zoonoses) for tourists and animals if the established protocols are not firmly applied	Ongoing (2018)
9. Pollution	9.1 Domestic & urban waste water	High		Pollution of watercourses from washing and human waste (Pacheco et al. 2012)	Ongoing (2012)
	9.4 Garbage & solid waste	Medium		Disposal of plastics and clothes (Pacheco et al. 2012)	Ongoing (2012)
10. Geological Events		Low		Geological studies have been carried out by the University of Huelva (Spain) and the Cheikh Anta Diop University of Dakar in order to create a “geopark”. There have been sporadic rock falls in the waterfall area, where tourists go, and land-slides in burnt slopes.	Ongoing (2023)
11. Climate change & severe weather		Unknown		Suspected, but data not available
12. Other options		Absent

IUCN Threats list

Conservation activities

Since 2009, the Jane Goodall Institute Spain in Senegal (https://www.janegoodallsenegal.org/biological-station) conducts conservation activities at Dindefelo by promoting reforestation, fire control, food security and resilience to climate change projects, by monitoring chimpanzees and other wildlife, by providing training and employment, and by carrying out environmental education and sensitization actions. In 2010, a Community Nature Reserve was established by the Rural Council in Dindefelo (Pacheco et al. 2012). With the support of the Jane Goodall Institute Spain in Senegal and the USAID/ Wula Nafaa program, a management plan was drawn in 2011 to regulate the management of the area from 2012-2016. This plan included the delimitation of three types of zones: high, medium and low-level protection for chimpanzees (Pacheco et al. 2012). Such zonation was updated for the 2021-2026 DCNR management plan in 2021, working along local authorities and the community. To foster a more sustainable use of natural resources, the JGI Spain in Senegal established and manages tree nurseries of species used for reforestation, creation of buffer zones and food security projects. Another conservation project was carried out to build so-called ‘live fences’, meaning fences around agricultural plots made from living plants, reducing pressure on forests (Pacheco et al. 2012). In addition, to alleviate competition for water sources between chimpanzees and humans, the JGI Spain in Senegal constructed or repaired water wells in several villages, a school and washing facilities. The JGI Spain in Senegal has also trained local people as eco guards and forest monitors of the reserve, equipped them and financed staff salaries for 15 months (2020-2021). In 2013, the JGI Spain in Senegal helped the reserve to regulate ecotourism based on chimpanzee tracking, creating safety and security protocols. This activity was stopped at the onset of the Covid 19 pandemic. When it was proposed by the authorities to resume it in 2021, the JGI Spain in Senegal advised against it. At their insistence, a stricter safety and hygiene protocol was proposed but JGIS staff is no longer involved in this activity. The JGI Spain in Senegal is currently implementing a project to build community resilience to climate change (hereafter BCR project) in 21 villages of four communes. With the support of Global Affairs Canada, this project includes: 1) the creation of cooperatives (Groupement d'intérêt économique in French, GIE), mostly composed of women, and their training in the management of such cooperatives, 2) providing training and equipment for the production of bio charcoal, 3) the mechanical processing of a local, drought-resistant cereal called fonio millet (Digitaria exilis) for consumption or sale, and 4) the creation of eight tree nurseries for the production and planting of wild and domestic trees commonly exploited by people. Past activities implemented by the JGI Spain in Senegal that were discontinued include a community managed tree plantation for Saba senegalensis (a fruit sought after by people, especially in the dry season, and sold to national markets) established in 2012 (Pacheco et al. 2012). The plant nurseries were managed by local committees and thus sustainable harvesting of this fruit was promoted. In addition, a municipal washing facility was established in one of the villages to provide washing opportunities within the village, while reducing water pollution and preventing interactions between chimpanzees and humans at water points (Pacheco et al. 2012). The washing facility was used for a rather limited amount of time and then abandoned for cultural and practical reasons. Currently, the JGI Spain in Senegal implements rigorous monitoring and evaluation protocols to carry out its conservation and sustainable development projects centered in the community and to ensure their continuity over time.

Table 4. Conservation activities in Dindefelo

Category	Specific activity	Description	Year of activity
1. Residential & commercial development	Absent
2. Agriculture & aquaculture	2.11. Farm more intensively and effectively in selected areas and spare more natural land	Established tree nurseries of crop species for food security, and ‘live fences’ (Pacheco et al. 2012), soil studies and training to improve crop productivity.	2012-Ongoing (2023)
3. Energy production & mining		Technical advice to local authorities and consultants on OMVG high-tension power line on compensation measures and sensitization of affected local human populations to mitigate potential negative interactions with chimpanzees.	2021
4. Transportation & service corridors	Absent
5. Biological resource use	5.11. Provide training to anti-poaching ranger patrols	Training, equipment and funding of ecoguards, manager and other reserve staff (2020-2021).	2020-2021
	5.10. Provide better equipment (e.g. guns) to anti-poaching ranger patrols	Training, equipment and funding of ecoguards, manager and other reserve staff (2020-2021).	2020-2021
6. Human intrusions & disturbance	Absent
7. Natural system modifications	Absent
8. Invasive & other problematic species, genes, diseases		Covid-19 prevention campaign, with sensitization and distribution of chlorine and soap to 12 villages, as well as facemasks and hand-washing stations in Dindefelo.	2020
9. Pollution	9.1. Reduce garbage/solid waste to avoid primate injuries	Establish municipal washing facility to avoid garbage being left close to watercourses (Pacheco et al. 2012); the Yaakar Africa association created and financed a garbage collection and management plan using domestic and public containers.	2012-Ongoing (2023)
9. Pollution	9.1. Reduce garbage/solid waste to avoid primate injuries	Sensitization campaigns and collection of batteries and clean-up events by youth groups.	2016-2019
10. Education & Awareness	10.1. Educate local communities about primates and sustainable use	The Roots&Shoots program carried out with local students includes activities of biodiversity and conservation education, and prevention of human-wildlife negative interactions in several villages.Interviews on human-chimpanzee interactions have been carried out in several villages.	2012-Ongoing (2023)
10. Education & Awareness	10.1. Educate local communities about primates and sustainable use	Annual camps for about 100 children from different villages within and around the reserve took place from 2016 to 2019.	2016-2019
	10.2. Involve local community in primate research and conservation management	Conservation workshops involving authorities and main stakeholders in the community (2017, 2019 and 2020).	2017, 2019, 2020
	10.2. Involve local community in primate research and conservation management	Community Nature Reserve created by local communities (Pacheco et al. 2012)	2010-Ongoing (2023)
	10.5. Implement multimedia campaigns using theatre, film, print media, discussions	Environmental cinema sessions in four villages. Sensitization on the sustainable management of natural resources and on chimpanzee conservation in 12 villages, with distribution of equipment to fight bush-fires	2017-Ongoing (2023)
11. Habitat Protection	11.3. Establish areas for conservation which are not protected by national or international legislation (e.g. private sector standards & codes)	Establishment of the Dindefelo Community Nature Reserve (Pacheco et al. 2012), with Management Plan updated in 2021	2010, 2021
	11.5. Create/protect forest patches in highly fragmented landscapes	Establishment of zones strictly protected for chimpanzees (Pacheco et al. 2012). Firebreaks made in risk areas used by the chimpanzees. Workshops on the prevention and control of bush-fires were carried out for 12 local committees, which were equipped to fight fires (2021).	2012-Ongoing (2021)
	11.8. Plant indigenous trees to re-establish natural tree communities in clear-cut areas	Tree nurseries, planting indigenous tree species in areas used by chimpanzees, reforest buffer zones	Ongoing (2016)
12. Species Management	Absent
13. Livelihood; Economic & Other Incentives	13.2. Provide non-monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g. better education, infrastructure development)	JGI Spain in Senegal activities have included the construction of water wells, training for farmers, especially groups of women, tourist guides, and owners of camp sites.	2013-Ongoing (2023)
13. Livelihood; Economic & Other Incentives	13.1. Provide monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g. REDD, employment)	JGI Spain in Senegal has created permanent jobs for research and agroforestry assistants, guardians and other staff. It has also created temporary work for other local staff working on agroforestry and firebreak-making. In addition, it purchases local services and materials, including thousands of biodegradable protectors for new trees.	2013-Ongoing (2023)
	13.3. Run research project and ensure permanent human presence at site	Biological station established by the JGI Spain.	2014-Ongoing (2023)
	13.4. Run tourist projects and ensure permanent human presence at site	Ecotourism project with chimpanzee tracking.	2013-2021
	13.4. Run tourist projects and ensure permanent human presence at site	Ecotourism project without chimpanzee tracking, supported by University of Huelva, a partner of JGI Spain.	2021-Ongoing (2023)
	13.5. Permanent presence of staff/manager	Staff permanently present at biological station (JGI Spain 2019)	2014-Ongoing (2023)

Conservation activities list (Junker et al. 2017)

Challenges

Main problems for chimpanzee conservation are human population growth, agricultural expansion and lack of water. Since chimpanzees regularly cross the border between Senegal and Guinea, the two countries need to work together to help towards the conservation of these apes.

Table 5. Challenges reported for Dindefelo

Challenge	Source
Lack of transboundary cooperation

Research activities

Studies conducted in Dindefelo have considered overlapping resource use by humans and chimpanzees and potential negative interactions between the two species (Ramon et al. 2017, Arias et al. 2017). Other research currently going on in Dindefelo focuses on chimpanzee tool and proto-tool use (Galán-Plana et al. 2022; Sánchez-Megías et al. 2022, in press), chimpanzee nesting behaviour (Enthoven et al. 2017; Macina et al. 2022), chimpanzee dietary diversity (Renelies-Hamilton et al. in press) chimpanzee body size variability (Cardoso et al. 2022), presence of other primates in the reserve (Dotras et al. 2022; Mirghani et al. in press) and the distribution of large and medium mammal species in the reserve (Mirghani et al. 2023). One study investigated the gut microbiomes of wild chimpanzees including those of Dindefelo (Renelies-Hamilton et al. 2019). Other studies have reported the presence of nematodes in Dindefelo chimpanzees (Laidoudi et al. 2020), adenovirus and parasitic infections in human and non-human primates in Africa including Dindefelo chimpanzees (Medkour et al. 2020a, 2020b, 2021), and multidrug-resistant bacteria from wild chimpanzees including those of Dindefelo (Baron et al. 2021; Abdallah et al. 2022). In addition, a molecular characterization of intestinal and blood parasites was conducted for Dindefelo chimpanzees (Köster et al. 2021). Dindefelo is also part of the Pan African Programme: The Cultured Chimpanzee (PanAf). Soil studies and training to improve crop productivity have also been carried out with the University Miguel Hernández, Spain.

Documented behaviours

Table 6. Great ape behaviors reported for Dindefelo

Behavior	Source
Algae fishing	Kühl et al. 2019
Ant dipping	Kühl et al. 2019; Sánchez-Megías et al. 2022, in press
Ant eating	Kühl et al. 2019
Ant eating without tools	Kühl et al. 2019
Cave use	Kühl et al. 2019, Marcos Nistal et al. 2022
Termite eating	Kühl et al. 2019
Termite fishing	Kühl et al. 2019; Boesch et al. 2020
Baobab pounding	Galán-Plana et al. 2022

References

Abdallah R et al. 2022. Population diversity of antibiotic resistant Enterobacterales in samples from wildlife origin in Senegal: Identification of a multidrug resistance transposon carrying blaCTX–M–15 in Escherichia coli. Frontiers in Microbiology 13:838392. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2022.838392
Arias M et al. 2017. Local perceptions on conservation of wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) in the Réserve Naturelle Communautaire de Dindéfélo, Southeast of Senegal. Preprint. https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints201712.0198.v1
Boesch C et al. 2020. Chimpanzee ethnography reveals unexpected cultural diversity. Nature Human Behaviour 4:1-7. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-020-0890-1
Baron S et al. 2021. Multidrug-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae clones from wild chimpanzees and termites in Senegal. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 65:e0255720. https://doi.org/10.1128/AAC.02557-20
Camon L et al. 2020. Tourist and local people use of a savanna chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes verus) habitat in Dindefelo, Senegal. Folia Primatologica 91:531. https:///doi.org/10.1159/000506768
Cardoso S et al. 2022. Measuring body size of wild chimpanzees from camera trap photographs using a photogrammetric technique. Revue de Primatologie 13. Abstract #194. https://doi.org/10.4000/primatologie.13512
Dotras L et al. 2022. First evidence of the Endangered King colobus (Colobus polykomos) in Senegal. Revue de Primatologie 13. Abstract 30. https://doi.org/10.4000/primatologie.14505
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Macina S et al. 2022. Savanna chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) nesting tree species abundance in Dindefelo (Senegal): Implications for conservation. Revue de Primatologie 13. Abstract #53. https://doi.org/10.4000/primatologie.14505
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Sánchez-Megías A et al. In press. Army ant (Dorylus sp.) foraging strategies of a savanna chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes verus) community at Dindefelo, Senegal. Revue de Primatologie
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Page completed by: Jane Goodall Institute Spain in Senegal Date: 02/12/2023

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