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[[West Africa]] > [[Senegal]] > [[Dindefelo]]
= Summary = <!-- An overview of the site, with a one sentence overview of each of the following sections. can include a site map -->
* Western chimpanzees ([https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/15935/17989872 ''Pan troglodytes verus'']) are present in Dindefelo.
* The population size is unknown.
* The chimpanzee population trend is unknown.
* This site has a total size of 133 km².
* Key threats to chimpanzees is habitat degradation.
* Conservation interventions focus on fostering a sustainable use of natural resources and reducing conflicts between humans and chimpanzees.
* Dindefelo is a Community Nature Reserve managed by local communities to foster a sustainable use of natural resources while protecting flora and fauna.
= Site characteristics = <!-- A paragraph summary of physical and geographic aspects of the site, and a table of key information -->
Dindefelo (also called Réserve Naturelle Communautaire de Dindéfélo) is located in Kédougou department in southeastern Senegal, close to the border with Guinea. Since 2009, the [https://www.janegoodallsenegal.org/biological-station Jane Goodall Institute Spain] conducts conservation activities and a chimpanzee biomonitoring program in the reserve. The Community Nature Reserve was created by the Rural Council in Dindefelo in 2010 with the support from the JGI Spain (Pacheco et al. 2012). The reserve is managed by local communities to foster a sustainable use of natural resources and the protection of flora and fauna, particularly chimpanzees. The JGI Spain provides technical assistance. In 2014, the JGI Spain established a permanent biological station (Dindefelo Biological Station) to conduct research, and implement conservation and education activities.
The habitat is a sudano-guinean savanna woodland mosaic composed of open (woodland, grassland, shrubland and bamboo) and closed (evergreen gallery forest and dense forest) vegetation types (Pacheco et al. 2012, Enthoven et al. 2017). There are also some agricultural areas and degraded gallery forests (Pacheco et al. 2012). The climate is extremely seasonal, with a dry season lasting seven months. There are seven villages within and ten villages surrounding the reserve that include different ethnic groups (Peul, Bassari and Diakhanke). The highest waterfall in Senegal is located in the reserve, which attracts thousands of national and international tourists every year (Camon et al. in press).
Five primate species are present in the reserve: western chimpanzee (''Pan troglodytes verus''), green monkey (''Chlorocebus sabaeus''), patas monkey (''Erythrocebus patas''), lesser bushbaby (''Galago senegalensis''), and Guinea baboon (''Papio papio'', Ramon 2017).
'''Table 1: Basic site information for Dindefelo'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="basic-information"
|Area <!-- Please include units: km2/ha e.g 200ha -->
|133 km²
|-
|Coordinates
|12.4 N, -12.3 W
|-
|Designation <!-- National Park, Nature Reserve, etc. -->
|Community Nature Reserve
|-
|Habitat types <!-- List IUCN Habitat Classification 3.0 categories present (Without number), see link below -->
|Dry savanna, subtropical/tropical dry shrubland, subtropical/tropical dry forest, subtropical/tropical dry lowland grassland, arable land, permanent rivers
|}
[http://www.unitar.org/hiroshima/sites/unitar.org.hiroshima/files/Annex%201%20-%20IUCN%20Classification%20Schemes.pdf IUCN habitat categories] [[Site designations]]
<br>
= Ape status = <!-- a text overview of ape status (population sizes, trends etc), followed by a table of specific surveys and results -->
A survey of southeastern Senegal established the presence of chimpanzees in what is now the reserve (Pruetz et al. 2002). Since the onset of conservation activities implemented by the [https://www.janegoodallsenegal.org/biological-station Jane Goodall Institute Spain] chimpanzees are monitored regularly. As part of the Pan African Programme: The Cultured Chimpanzee ([http://panafrican.eva.mpg.de/ PanAf]) a systematic survey was implemented and chimpanzee density has been estimated at 0.13 indiv/km² (Wessling et al. in review). An estimate of the population size has not been published, but a minimum of 52 individual chimpanzees have been identified by direct observation and photographs from camera traps (JGI Spain, unpublished data).
'''Table 2: Great ape population estimates in Dindefelo'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="population-estimate-table"
! Species
! Year
! Abundance estimate (95% confidence interval)
! Density estimate (per km²)
! Encounter rate (nests/km)
! Area
! Method
! Source
! Comments
! A.P.E.S. database ID
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2000
|
|
|Present
|Dindefelo
|Index survey
|Pruetz et al. 2002
|
|
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2014
|
|0.13
|
|Dindefelo
|Line transects (Distance)
|Wessling et al. in review
|Total survey effort: 73.8 km
|
|}
= Threats = <!-- a text overview of threats, followed by a table of key threats -->
The main threats to chimpanzees include the clearing of vegetation for agriculture, fires and pollution of water sources (Pacheco et al. 2012, Arias et al. 2017, Enthoven et al. 2017). Local people extract the following resources: wood (including several tree species used by the chimpanzees for nesting: Enthoven et al. 2017), firewood, food (e.g. ''Saba senegalensis'' fruit: Ramon et al. 2017), and medicine (e.g. ''Spondias mombin'': JGI Spain unpublished data). Due to lack of other options, watercourses are used for washing and washing clothes. This causes the pollution of watercourses, as plastic littering and old clothes are thrown away (posing a risk of ingestion by wildlife, Pacheco et al. 2012, Arias et al. 2017) and human waste is disposed in the water. Overtapping of palm trees has also been reported (Pacheco et al. 2012). A further concern is the competition between chimpanzees and humans for water during the dry season (JGI Spain, unpublished data). Small scale, artisanal gold mining was observed in 2015 in the buffer area of the reserve, but is currently absent. No evidence of chimpanzee hunting has been found during the JGI Spain presence at the site (last 10 years).
'''Table 3: Threats to great apes in Dindefelo'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="threats-table"
!align="left"|Category <!-- Do not change threat categories -->
!Specific threats <!-- For specific threats, please use list of comma separated keywords from the list linked below -->
!Threat level <!-- For threat level, please use keywords: unknown, low, high -->
!Quantified severity <!-- e.g., encounter rate, number of miners etc. (with reference)-->
!Description <!-- You can add descriptive information here -->
!Year of threat <!-- if ongoing or unknown add year of reference in brackets-->
|-
|1. Residential & commercial development
|1.1. Housing & urban areas
|High
|Approx. 8,000 inhabitants in 770 villages (as of 2012)
|Villages and hamlets (Pacheco et al. 2012)
|Ongoing (2012)
|-
|
|1.3. Tourism & recreation areas
|Medium
|
|Localized area around visitor centre and pathways leading to the waterfall (Camon et al. in press)
|Ongoing (2019)
|-
|2. Agriculture & aquaculture
|2.1. Annual & Perennial Non-Timber Crops
|High
|
|Agricultural activities (Pacheco et al. 2012)
|Ongoing (2012)
|-
|
|2.3. Livestock farming & ranching
|High
|
|Livestock grazing
|Ongoing
|-
|3. Energy production & mining
|
|Not reported
|
|Artisanal gold mining signs encountered in 2015, but stopped now
|2015
|-
|4. Transportation & service corridors
|4.1. Roads & railroads
|Low
|
|Roads
|Ongoing
|-
|5. Biological resource use
|5.1. Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals
|Medium
|
|Hunting of wildlife (Pacheco et al. 2012)
|Ongoing (2012)
|-
|
|5.2. Gathering terrestrial plants
|Medium
|
|Gathering fruits, plant products for medicine and feed for livestock (the latter during dry-season)
|Ongoing (2019)
|-
|
|5.3. Logging & wood harvesting
|Medium
|
|Cutting of trees for building and firewood (Pacheco et al. 2012, Arias et al. 2017)
|Ongoing (2017)
|-
|6. Human intrusions & disturbance
|6.1 Recreational activities
|Medium
|
|Thousands of tourists visit the waterfall every year, converging with the chimpanzees (Camon et al. in press)
|Ongoing (2019)
|-
|7. Natural system modifications
|7.1. Fire & Fire suppression
|High
|
|Fire used to clear areas for agriculture (Pacheco et al. 2012)
|Ongoing (2012)
|-
|8. Invasive & other problematic species, genes, diseases
|8.1. Invasive Non-Native/Alien Species/Diseases
|Low
|
|Dogs
|Ongoing (2019)
|-
|9. Pollution
|9.1. Domestic & urban waste water
|High
|
|Pollution of watercourses from washing and human waste (Pacheco et al. 2012)
|Ongoing (2012)
|-
|
|9.4. Garbage & solid waste
|Medium
|
|Disposal of plastics and clothes (Pacheco et al. 2012)
|Ongoing (2012)
|-
|10. Geological Events
|
|Absent
|
|
|
|-
| 11. Climate change & severe weather
|
|Unknown
|
|Suspected, but data not available
|
|-
|12. Other options
|
|Absent
|
|
|
|-
|}
[https://www.iucnredlist.org/resources/threat-classification-scheme IUCN Threats list]
= Conservation activities = <!-- a text overview of conservation activities, followed by a table of key activities -->
Since 2009, the [https://www.janegoodallsenegal.org/biological-station Jane Goodall Institute Spain] conducts conservation activities in Dindefelo by promoting reforestation and the farming of crops fostering food security, and by providing training, employment and environmental education.
In 2010 a Community Nature Reserve was established by the Rural Council in Dindefelo (Pacheco et al. 2012). With the support from the [https://www.janegoodallsenegal.org/biological-station Jane Goodall Institute Spain] and the USAID/ Wula Nafaa program a management plan was drawn regulating the management of the area from 2012-2016 (RNCD 2011). This included the demarcation of three zones: high, medium and low level protection of chimpanzees (Pacheco et al. 2012).
To foster a more sustainable use of natural resources, the JGI Spain established and manages tree nurseries of crop species for food security. Another conservation project works with farmers to build so-called ‘live fences’, meaning fences around agricultural plots made from living plants. Fruits and seeds produced by these plants can be consumed or sold, reducing pressure on forests (Pacheco et al. 2012). In addition, to alleviate competition for water sources between chimpanzees and humans, the JGI Spain constructed water wells in some villages. The JGI Spain also trains local people as eco-guards and is developing a pilot chimpanzee tracking project to promote ecotourism as a sustainable development tool. Finally, the JGI Spain also established tree nurseries to grow indigenous species, including chimpanzee food species, to plant in areas used by the chimpanzees and to reforest buffer zones.
Past activities implemented by the JGI Spain that were discontinued include a community managed tree plantation for ''Saba senegalensis'' (a fruit sought after by people esp. in the dry season and sold to national markets) established in 2012 in collaboration with the University of Alicante, the University Cheikh Anta Diop in Dakar, and the USAID/Wula Nafaa program (Pacheco et al. 2012). The plant nurseries were managed by local committees and thus sustainable harvesting of this fruit was promoted. In addition, a municipal washing facility was established in one of the villages to provide washing opportunities within the village, while reducing water pollution and preventing conflicts between chimpanzees and humans at water points (Pacheco et al. 2012). The washing facilities were used for a rather limited amount of time and then abandoned for cultural reasons.
'''Table 4: Conservation activities in Dindefelo'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="conservation-actions-table"
!align="left"|Category <!-- Do not change threat categories -->
!Specific activity <!-- For specific threats, please use list of comma separated keywords from the list linked below -->
!Description <!-- You can add descriptive information here -->
!Year of activity <!-- if ongoing or unknown add year of reference in brackets -->
|-
|1. Residential & commercial development
|Absent
|
|
|-
|2. Agriculture & aquaculture
|2.11. Farm more intensively and effectively in selected areas and spare more natural land
|Established tree nurseries of crop species for food security, and ‘live fences’ (Pacheco et al. 2012), soil studies and training to improve crop productivity
|Since 2012
|-
|3. Energy production & mining
|Absent
|
|
|-
|4. Transportation & service corridors
|Absent
|
|
|-
|5. Biological resource use
|Absent
|
|
|-
|6. Human intrusions & disturbance
|Absent
|
|
|-
|7. Natural system modifications
|Absent
|
|
|-
|8. Invasive & other problematic species, genes, diseases
|Absent
|
|
|-
|9. Pollution
|9.1. Reduce garbage/solid waste to avoid primate injuries
|Establish municipal washing facility to avoid garbage being left close to watercourses (Pacheco et al. 2012)
|2012
|-
|10. Education & Awareness
|10.1. Educate local communities about primates and sustainable use
|Roots&Shoots program, includes weekly activities and annual camps for about 100 children from different villages within and surrounding the reserve
|Since 2012
|-
|
|10.2. Involve local community in primate research and conservation management
|Community Nature Reserve created by local communities (Pacheco et al. 2012)
|Since 2010
|-
|
|10.5. Implement multimedia campaigns using theatre, film, print media, discussions
|Environmental cinema sessions in different villages
|
|-
|11. Habitat Protection
|11.3. Establish areas for conservation which are not protected by national or international legislation (e.g. private sector standards & codes)
|Establishment of Community Nature Reserve (Pacheco et al. 2012)
|Since 2010
|-
|
|11.5. Create/protect forest patches in highly fragmented landscapes
|Establishment of zones strictly protected for chimpanzees (Pacheco et al. 2012)
|Since 2012
|-
|
|11.8. Plant indigenous trees to re-establish natural tree communities in clear-cut areas
|Tree nurseries, planting indigenous tree species in areas used by chimpanzees, reforest buffer zones
|Since 2016
|-
|12. Species Management
|Absent
|
|
|-
|13. Livelihood; Economic & Other Incentives
|13.2. Provide non-monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g. better education, infrastructure development)
|Water well construction
|Since 2013
|-
|
|13.3. Run research project and ensure permanent human presence at site
|Biological station established by the JGI Spain (JGI Spain 2019)
|Since 2014
|-
|
|13.4. Run tourist projects and ensure permanent human presence at site
|Ecotourism project
|Since 2013
|-
|
|13.5. Permanent presence of staff/manager
|Staff permanently present at biological station (JGI Spain 2019)
|Since 2014
|-
|}
[[Conservation activities list (Junker et al. 2017)]]
= Impediments = <!-- Overview of impediments to ape conservation -->
Main problems for chimpanzee conservation are human population growth, agricultural expansion and lack of water. Since chimpanzees regularly cross the border between Senegal and Guinea, the two countries need to work together to help towards the conservation of these apes.
'''Table 5: Impediments reported for Dindefelo'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="impediments-table"
!align="left"|Impediment <!-- Do not change categories -->
!Source <!-- source for impediment mentioned -->
|-
|Lack of transboundary cooperation
|
|}
= Research activities = <!-- Overview of research activities -->
Studies conducted in Dindefelo have mainly focused on overlapping resource use by humans and chimpanzees and potential conflicts (Ramon 2017, Arias et al. 2017). Dindefelo was also part of the Pan African Programme: The Cultured Chimpanzee ([http://panafrican.eva.mpg.de/ PanAf]). Another study investigated the gut microbiomes of wild chimpanzees including those of Dindefelo (Renelies-Hamilton et al. 2019).
===Documented behaviours=== <!-- List of any behaviours observed at the site, including citations -->
'''Table 6: Great ape behaviors reported for Dindefelo'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="behaviors-table"
!align="left"|Behavior <!-- Do not change categories -->
!Source <!-- source for behavior -->
|-
|Algae fishing
|Kühl et al. 2019
|-
|Ant dipping
|Kühl et al. 2019
|-
|Ant eating
|Kühl et al. 2019
|-
|Ant eating without tools
|Kühl et al. 2019
|-
|Cave use
|Kühl et al. 2019
|-
|Termite eating
|Kühl et al. 2019
|-
|Termite fishing
|Kühl et al. 2019
|}
===Relevant datasets===
[http://apesportal.eva.mpg.de/database/archiveMap A.P.E.S Portal]
<br>
= References =
Arias M. et al. 2017. Local perceptions on conservation of wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) in the Réserve Naturelle Communautaire de Dindéfélo, Southeast of Senegal. Preprint<br>
Camon, L., Pacheco, L., Llana, M., Galbany, J., Gutierrez-Diez, I. and Hernandez-Aguilar, R.A. (in press) Tourist and local people use of a savanna chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes verus) habitat in Dindefelo, Senegal. Folia Primatologica.<br>
Enthoven, D., Pacheco, L., Llana, M., Reitan, T. and Hernandez-Aguilar, R.A. (2017) Nesting patterns of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) in a savannah habitat, Dindefelo, Senegal. Folia Primatologica 88:114.<br>
JGI Spain. 2019. Dindéfélo Biological Station: JGI’s headquarters in Senegal. Online: [https://www.janegoodallsenegal.org/biological-station www.janegoodallsenegal.org]<br>
Kühl HS et al. 2019. Human impact erodes chimpanzee behavioral diversity. Science. 363, 1453–1455.<br>
Pacheco L et al. 2012. Perspectives on sustainable resource conservation in community nature reserves: a case study from Senegal. Sustainability 4:3158-3179<br>
Pruetz JD et al. 2002. Survey of savannah chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) in south-eastern Sénégal. American Journal of Primatology 58: 35–43.<br>
Ramon M, Llana M, Estela N, Pacheco L, Hockings K and Hill C. 2017. The fruit of discord? Saba senegalensis use by chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) and local people in the Dindefelo Community Nature Reserve (RNCD), Southeastern Senegal. Folia Primatologica 88:167-168.<br>
Renelies-Hamilton J et al. 2019. Exploring interactions between Blastocystis sp., Strongyloides spp. and the gut microbiomes of wild chimpanzees in Senegal. Infection, Genetics and Evolution 74:104010<br>
RNCD 2011. Plan de Gestion de la Réserve Naturelle Communautaire de Dindéfélo, 1st ed.; Institut Jane Goodall Espagne et Programme USAID/Wula Nafaa: Dindéfélo, Senegal.<br>
Wessling, E.G., Dieguez, P., Llana, M., Pacheco, L., Pruetz, J.D., & H.S. Kühl. (In Review). Chimpanzee (Pan trodglodytes verus) density and environmental gradients at their biogeographical range edge. Int J Primatol.<br>
<br>
'''Page completed by:''' A.P.E.S. Wiki Team '''Date:''' 17/12/2019 <!-- If you don't want to add your name, you can add "A.P.E.S. Wiki team" -->
<br><br>
- Wiki site pages contain information in paragraphs of text, tables, keyword lists, and images
- Text paragraphs and images are not restricted, so text format and images can be chosen as desired.
- Tables and keyword lists are extracted as data, and so have the following restrictions:
1) Table structure cannot be changed
2) Keyword format should not change, i.e. they are comma separated lists, not bullet points or numbered lists.
3) Keywords must be taken from the list of permitted words, or added to the list of permitted keywords. A link to the keyword list page is found adjacent
to the relevant table or keyword list. This ensures that the same keyword always refers to the same concept, e.g. Everybody uses "Industrial mining",
rather than several keywords such as "Industrial mining", "Large-scale mining", and "Mining".
-->
<!-- Please add information for this site -->
[[West Africa]] > [[Senegal]] > [[Dindefelo]]
= Summary = <!-- An overview of the site, with a one sentence overview of each of the following sections. can include a site map -->
* Western chimpanzees ([https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/15935/17989872 ''Pan troglodytes verus'']) are present in Dindefelo.
* The population size is unknown.
* The chimpanzee population trend is unknown.
* This site has a total size of 133 km².
* Key threats to chimpanzees is habitat degradation.
* Conservation interventions focus on fostering a sustainable use of natural resources and reducing conflicts between humans and chimpanzees.
* Dindefelo is a Community Nature Reserve managed by local communities to foster a sustainable use of natural resources while protecting flora and fauna.
= Site characteristics = <!-- A paragraph summary of physical and geographic aspects of the site, and a table of key information -->
Dindefelo (also called Réserve Naturelle Communautaire de Dindéfélo) is located in Kédougou department in southeastern Senegal, close to the border with Guinea. Since 2009, the [https://www.janegoodallsenegal.org/biological-station Jane Goodall Institute Spain] conducts conservation activities and a chimpanzee biomonitoring program in the reserve. The Community Nature Reserve was created by the Rural Council in Dindefelo in 2010 with the support from the JGI Spain (Pacheco et al. 2012). The reserve is managed by local communities to foster a sustainable use of natural resources and the protection of flora and fauna, particularly chimpanzees. The JGI Spain provides technical assistance. In 2014, the JGI Spain established a permanent biological station (Dindefelo Biological Station) to conduct research, and implement conservation and education activities.
The habitat is a sudano-guinean savanna woodland mosaic composed of open (woodland, grassland, shrubland and bamboo) and closed (evergreen gallery forest and dense forest) vegetation types (Pacheco et al. 2012, Enthoven et al. 2017). There are also some agricultural areas and degraded gallery forests (Pacheco et al. 2012). The climate is extremely seasonal, with a dry season lasting seven months. There are seven villages within and ten villages surrounding the reserve that include different ethnic groups (Peul, Bassari and Diakhanke). The highest waterfall in Senegal is located in the reserve, which attracts thousands of national and international tourists every year (Camon et al. in press).
Five primate species are present in the reserve: western chimpanzee (''Pan troglodytes verus''), green monkey (''Chlorocebus sabaeus''), patas monkey (''Erythrocebus patas''), lesser bushbaby (''Galago senegalensis''), and Guinea baboon (''Papio papio'', Ramon 2017).
'''Table 1: Basic site information for Dindefelo'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="basic-information"
|Area <!-- Please include units: km2/ha e.g 200ha -->
|133 km²
|-
|Coordinates
|12.4 N, -12.3 W
|-
|Designation <!-- National Park, Nature Reserve, etc. -->
|Community Nature Reserve
|-
|Habitat types <!-- List IUCN Habitat Classification 3.0 categories present (Without number), see link below -->
|Dry savanna, subtropical/tropical dry shrubland, subtropical/tropical dry forest, subtropical/tropical dry lowland grassland, arable land, permanent rivers
|}
[http://www.unitar.org/hiroshima/sites/unitar.org.hiroshima/files/Annex%201%20-%20IUCN%20Classification%20Schemes.pdf IUCN habitat categories] [[Site designations]]
<br>
= Ape status = <!-- a text overview of ape status (population sizes, trends etc), followed by a table of specific surveys and results -->
A survey of southeastern Senegal established the presence of chimpanzees in what is now the reserve (Pruetz et al. 2002). Since the onset of conservation activities implemented by the [https://www.janegoodallsenegal.org/biological-station Jane Goodall Institute Spain] chimpanzees are monitored regularly. As part of the Pan African Programme: The Cultured Chimpanzee ([http://panafrican.eva.mpg.de/ PanAf]) a systematic survey was implemented and chimpanzee density has been estimated at 0.13 indiv/km² (Wessling et al. in review). An estimate of the population size has not been published, but a minimum of 52 individual chimpanzees have been identified by direct observation and photographs from camera traps (JGI Spain, unpublished data).
'''Table 2: Great ape population estimates in Dindefelo'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="population-estimate-table"
! Species
! Year
! Abundance estimate (95% confidence interval)
! Density estimate (per km²)
! Encounter rate (nests/km)
! Area
! Method
! Source
! Comments
! A.P.E.S. database ID
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2000
|
|
|Present
|Dindefelo
|Index survey
|Pruetz et al. 2002
|
|
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2014
|
|0.13
|
|Dindefelo
|Line transects (Distance)
|Wessling et al. in review
|Total survey effort: 73.8 km
|
|}
= Threats = <!-- a text overview of threats, followed by a table of key threats -->
The main threats to chimpanzees include the clearing of vegetation for agriculture, fires and pollution of water sources (Pacheco et al. 2012, Arias et al. 2017, Enthoven et al. 2017). Local people extract the following resources: wood (including several tree species used by the chimpanzees for nesting: Enthoven et al. 2017), firewood, food (e.g. ''Saba senegalensis'' fruit: Ramon et al. 2017), and medicine (e.g. ''Spondias mombin'': JGI Spain unpublished data). Due to lack of other options, watercourses are used for washing and washing clothes. This causes the pollution of watercourses, as plastic littering and old clothes are thrown away (posing a risk of ingestion by wildlife, Pacheco et al. 2012, Arias et al. 2017) and human waste is disposed in the water. Overtapping of palm trees has also been reported (Pacheco et al. 2012). A further concern is the competition between chimpanzees and humans for water during the dry season (JGI Spain, unpublished data). Small scale, artisanal gold mining was observed in 2015 in the buffer area of the reserve, but is currently absent. No evidence of chimpanzee hunting has been found during the JGI Spain presence at the site (last 10 years).
'''Table 3: Threats to great apes in Dindefelo'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="threats-table"
!align="left"|Category <!-- Do not change threat categories -->
!Specific threats <!-- For specific threats, please use list of comma separated keywords from the list linked below -->
!Threat level <!-- For threat level, please use keywords: unknown, low, high -->
!Quantified severity <!-- e.g., encounter rate, number of miners etc. (with reference)-->
!Description <!-- You can add descriptive information here -->
!Year of threat <!-- if ongoing or unknown add year of reference in brackets-->
|-
|1. Residential & commercial development
|1.1. Housing & urban areas
|High
|Approx. 8,000 inhabitants in 770 villages (as of 2012)
|Villages and hamlets (Pacheco et al. 2012)
|Ongoing (2012)
|-
|
|1.3. Tourism & recreation areas
|Medium
|
|Localized area around visitor centre and pathways leading to the waterfall (Camon et al. in press)
|Ongoing (2019)
|-
|2. Agriculture & aquaculture
|2.1. Annual & Perennial Non-Timber Crops
|High
|
|Agricultural activities (Pacheco et al. 2012)
|Ongoing (2012)
|-
|
|2.3. Livestock farming & ranching
|High
|
|Livestock grazing
|Ongoing
|-
|3. Energy production & mining
|
|Not reported
|
|Artisanal gold mining signs encountered in 2015, but stopped now
|2015
|-
|4. Transportation & service corridors
|4.1. Roads & railroads
|Low
|
|Roads
|Ongoing
|-
|5. Biological resource use
|5.1. Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals
|Medium
|
|Hunting of wildlife (Pacheco et al. 2012)
|Ongoing (2012)
|-
|
|5.2. Gathering terrestrial plants
|Medium
|
|Gathering fruits, plant products for medicine and feed for livestock (the latter during dry-season)
|Ongoing (2019)
|-
|
|5.3. Logging & wood harvesting
|Medium
|
|Cutting of trees for building and firewood (Pacheco et al. 2012, Arias et al. 2017)
|Ongoing (2017)
|-
|6. Human intrusions & disturbance
|6.1 Recreational activities
|Medium
|
|Thousands of tourists visit the waterfall every year, converging with the chimpanzees (Camon et al. in press)
|Ongoing (2019)
|-
|7. Natural system modifications
|7.1. Fire & Fire suppression
|High
|
|Fire used to clear areas for agriculture (Pacheco et al. 2012)
|Ongoing (2012)
|-
|8. Invasive & other problematic species, genes, diseases
|8.1. Invasive Non-Native/Alien Species/Diseases
|Low
|
|Dogs
|Ongoing (2019)
|-
|9. Pollution
|9.1. Domestic & urban waste water
|High
|
|Pollution of watercourses from washing and human waste (Pacheco et al. 2012)
|Ongoing (2012)
|-
|
|9.4. Garbage & solid waste
|Medium
|
|Disposal of plastics and clothes (Pacheco et al. 2012)
|Ongoing (2012)
|-
|10. Geological Events
|
|Absent
|
|
|
|-
| 11. Climate change & severe weather
|
|Unknown
|
|Suspected, but data not available
|
|-
|12. Other options
|
|Absent
|
|
|
|-
|}
[https://www.iucnredlist.org/resources/threat-classification-scheme IUCN Threats list]
= Conservation activities = <!-- a text overview of conservation activities, followed by a table of key activities -->
Since 2009, the [https://www.janegoodallsenegal.org/biological-station Jane Goodall Institute Spain] conducts conservation activities in Dindefelo by promoting reforestation and the farming of crops fostering food security, and by providing training, employment and environmental education.
In 2010 a Community Nature Reserve was established by the Rural Council in Dindefelo (Pacheco et al. 2012). With the support from the [https://www.janegoodallsenegal.org/biological-station Jane Goodall Institute Spain] and the USAID/ Wula Nafaa program a management plan was drawn regulating the management of the area from 2012-2016 (RNCD 2011). This included the demarcation of three zones: high, medium and low level protection of chimpanzees (Pacheco et al. 2012).
To foster a more sustainable use of natural resources, the JGI Spain established and manages tree nurseries of crop species for food security. Another conservation project works with farmers to build so-called ‘live fences’, meaning fences around agricultural plots made from living plants. Fruits and seeds produced by these plants can be consumed or sold, reducing pressure on forests (Pacheco et al. 2012). In addition, to alleviate competition for water sources between chimpanzees and humans, the JGI Spain constructed water wells in some villages. The JGI Spain also trains local people as eco-guards and is developing a pilot chimpanzee tracking project to promote ecotourism as a sustainable development tool. Finally, the JGI Spain also established tree nurseries to grow indigenous species, including chimpanzee food species, to plant in areas used by the chimpanzees and to reforest buffer zones.
Past activities implemented by the JGI Spain that were discontinued include a community managed tree plantation for ''Saba senegalensis'' (a fruit sought after by people esp. in the dry season and sold to national markets) established in 2012 in collaboration with the University of Alicante, the University Cheikh Anta Diop in Dakar, and the USAID/Wula Nafaa program (Pacheco et al. 2012). The plant nurseries were managed by local committees and thus sustainable harvesting of this fruit was promoted. In addition, a municipal washing facility was established in one of the villages to provide washing opportunities within the village, while reducing water pollution and preventing conflicts between chimpanzees and humans at water points (Pacheco et al. 2012). The washing facilities were used for a rather limited amount of time and then abandoned for cultural reasons.
'''Table 4: Conservation activities in Dindefelo'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="conservation-actions-table"
!align="left"|Category <!-- Do not change threat categories -->
!Specific activity <!-- For specific threats, please use list of comma separated keywords from the list linked below -->
!Description <!-- You can add descriptive information here -->
!Year of activity <!-- if ongoing or unknown add year of reference in brackets -->
|-
|1. Residential & commercial development
|Absent
|
|
|-
|2. Agriculture & aquaculture
|2.11. Farm more intensively and effectively in selected areas and spare more natural land
|Established tree nurseries of crop species for food security, and ‘live fences’ (Pacheco et al. 2012), soil studies and training to improve crop productivity
|Since 2012
|-
|3. Energy production & mining
|Absent
|
|
|-
|4. Transportation & service corridors
|Absent
|
|
|-
|5. Biological resource use
|Absent
|
|
|-
|6. Human intrusions & disturbance
|Absent
|
|
|-
|7. Natural system modifications
|Absent
|
|
|-
|8. Invasive & other problematic species, genes, diseases
|Absent
|
|
|-
|9. Pollution
|9.1. Reduce garbage/solid waste to avoid primate injuries
|Establish municipal washing facility to avoid garbage being left close to watercourses (Pacheco et al. 2012)
|2012
|-
|10. Education & Awareness
|10.1. Educate local communities about primates and sustainable use
|Roots&Shoots program, includes weekly activities and annual camps for about 100 children from different villages within and surrounding the reserve
|Since 2012
|-
|
|10.2. Involve local community in primate research and conservation management
|Community Nature Reserve created by local communities (Pacheco et al. 2012)
|Since 2010
|-
|
|10.5. Implement multimedia campaigns using theatre, film, print media, discussions
|Environmental cinema sessions in different villages
|
|-
|11. Habitat Protection
|11.3. Establish areas for conservation which are not protected by national or international legislation (e.g. private sector standards & codes)
|Establishment of Community Nature Reserve (Pacheco et al. 2012)
|Since 2010
|-
|
|11.5. Create/protect forest patches in highly fragmented landscapes
|Establishment of zones strictly protected for chimpanzees (Pacheco et al. 2012)
|Since 2012
|-
|
|11.8. Plant indigenous trees to re-establish natural tree communities in clear-cut areas
|Tree nurseries, planting indigenous tree species in areas used by chimpanzees, reforest buffer zones
|Since 2016
|-
|12. Species Management
|Absent
|
|
|-
|13. Livelihood; Economic & Other Incentives
|13.2. Provide non-monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g. better education, infrastructure development)
|Water well construction
|Since 2013
|-
|
|13.3. Run research project and ensure permanent human presence at site
|Biological station established by the JGI Spain (JGI Spain 2019)
|Since 2014
|-
|
|13.4. Run tourist projects and ensure permanent human presence at site
|Ecotourism project
|Since 2013
|-
|
|13.5. Permanent presence of staff/manager
|Staff permanently present at biological station (JGI Spain 2019)
|Since 2014
|-
|}
[[Conservation activities list (Junker et al. 2017)]]
= Impediments = <!-- Overview of impediments to ape conservation -->
Main problems for chimpanzee conservation are human population growth, agricultural expansion and lack of water. Since chimpanzees regularly cross the border between Senegal and Guinea, the two countries need to work together to help towards the conservation of these apes.
'''Table 5: Impediments reported for Dindefelo'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="impediments-table"
!align="left"|Impediment <!-- Do not change categories -->
!Source <!-- source for impediment mentioned -->
|-
|Lack of transboundary cooperation
|
|}
= Research activities = <!-- Overview of research activities -->
Studies conducted in Dindefelo have mainly focused on overlapping resource use by humans and chimpanzees and potential conflicts (Ramon 2017, Arias et al. 2017). Dindefelo was also part of the Pan African Programme: The Cultured Chimpanzee ([http://panafrican.eva.mpg.de/ PanAf]). Another study investigated the gut microbiomes of wild chimpanzees including those of Dindefelo (Renelies-Hamilton et al. 2019).
===Documented behaviours=== <!-- List of any behaviours observed at the site, including citations -->
'''Table 6: Great ape behaviors reported for Dindefelo'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="behaviors-table"
!align="left"|Behavior <!-- Do not change categories -->
!Source <!-- source for behavior -->
|-
|Algae fishing
|Kühl et al. 2019
|-
|Ant dipping
|Kühl et al. 2019
|-
|Ant eating
|Kühl et al. 2019
|-
|Ant eating without tools
|Kühl et al. 2019
|-
|Cave use
|Kühl et al. 2019
|-
|Termite eating
|Kühl et al. 2019
|-
|Termite fishing
|Kühl et al. 2019
|}
===Relevant datasets===
[http://apesportal.eva.mpg.de/database/archiveMap A.P.E.S Portal]
<br>
= References =
Arias M. et al. 2017. Local perceptions on conservation of wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) in the Réserve Naturelle Communautaire de Dindéfélo, Southeast of Senegal. Preprint<br>
Camon, L., Pacheco, L., Llana, M., Galbany, J., Gutierrez-Diez, I. and Hernandez-Aguilar, R.A. (in press) Tourist and local people use of a savanna chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes verus) habitat in Dindefelo, Senegal. Folia Primatologica.<br>
Enthoven, D., Pacheco, L., Llana, M., Reitan, T. and Hernandez-Aguilar, R.A. (2017) Nesting patterns of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) in a savannah habitat, Dindefelo, Senegal. Folia Primatologica 88:114.<br>
JGI Spain. 2019. Dindéfélo Biological Station: JGI’s headquarters in Senegal. Online: [https://www.janegoodallsenegal.org/biological-station www.janegoodallsenegal.org]<br>
Kühl HS et al. 2019. Human impact erodes chimpanzee behavioral diversity. Science. 363, 1453–1455.<br>
Pacheco L et al. 2012. Perspectives on sustainable resource conservation in community nature reserves: a case study from Senegal. Sustainability 4:3158-3179<br>
Pruetz JD et al. 2002. Survey of savannah chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) in south-eastern Sénégal. American Journal of Primatology 58: 35–43.<br>
Ramon M, Llana M, Estela N, Pacheco L, Hockings K and Hill C. 2017. The fruit of discord? Saba senegalensis use by chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) and local people in the Dindefelo Community Nature Reserve (RNCD), Southeastern Senegal. Folia Primatologica 88:167-168.<br>
Renelies-Hamilton J et al. 2019. Exploring interactions between Blastocystis sp., Strongyloides spp. and the gut microbiomes of wild chimpanzees in Senegal. Infection, Genetics and Evolution 74:104010<br>
RNCD 2011. Plan de Gestion de la Réserve Naturelle Communautaire de Dindéfélo, 1st ed.; Institut Jane Goodall Espagne et Programme USAID/Wula Nafaa: Dindéfélo, Senegal.<br>
Wessling, E.G., Dieguez, P., Llana, M., Pacheco, L., Pruetz, J.D., & H.S. Kühl. (In Review). Chimpanzee (Pan trodglodytes verus) density and environmental gradients at their biogeographical range edge. Int J Primatol.<br>
<br>
'''Page completed by:''' A.P.E.S. Wiki Team '''Date:''' 17/12/2019 <!-- If you don't want to add your name, you can add "A.P.E.S. Wiki team" -->
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